Chemistry Chapter 5
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Chemistry Chapter 5

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Questions and Answers

What is the charge of a proton?

  • Positive (correct)
  • Varies with energy level
  • Negative
  • Neutral

    • Electrons have a mass that is greater than the mass of protons.

    False

    What does the principal quantum number (n) indicate about an electron?

    The energy level or shell where the electron is located.

    The particle that is uncharged and has a mass of $1.675 \times 10^{-24}$ is called a ______.

    <p>neutron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following quantum numbers with their descriptions:

    <p>n = Principal quantum number indicating energy levels l = Suborbital quantum number indicating shape m_l = Magnetic quantum number indicating orbital orientation m_s = Spin quantum number indicating electron spin direction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following elements has a more stable electron configuration due to having a half-filled d orbital?

    <p>Chromium (Cr)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electronegativity increases from right to left across a period.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of ionization?

    <p>The process of losing one or more electrons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the periodic table, the rows are known as ________.

    <p>periods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of bonds with their definitions:

    <p>Covalent bond = Equal or unequal sharing of electrons Ionic bond = Transfer of an electron from one atom to another Coulombic attraction = Attraction between electrons and nucleus Orbital hybridization = Mixing of atomic orbitals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the orientation of sp hybrid orbitals?

    <p>180° away from each other</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ionic bonding involves the sharing of electrons between two atoms.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What bond angle is typically associated with sp3 hybridization?

    <p>approx. 109.5°</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The electron density in a polar bond is shifted toward the more ___________ atom.

    <p>electronegative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of hybridization with their characteristics:

    <p>sp = Linear orientation with 180° bond angle sp2 = Trigonal planar orientation with 120° bond angle sp3 = Tetrahedral orientation with approx. 109.5° bond angle None = Represents ionic bonding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond results when both electrons in the bond come from a single orbital of one atom?

    <p>Coordinate covalent bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrogen bonding is considered a strong interaction compared to covalent bonding.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to refer to a molecule that binds to a metal cation in a coordination compound?

    <p>ligand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Van der Waals forces are primarily responsible for interactions between ________ molecules.

    <p>nonpolar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following bonding types with their descriptions:

    <p>Covalent Bond = Sharing of electron pairs between atoms Hydrogen Bond = Weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and electronegative atoms Coordinate Covalent Bond = Bonding where both electrons come from one atom Van der Waals Forces = Weak electrical dipole interactions between molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is primarily treated using penicillamine?

    <p>Wilson's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Deferoxamine mesylate can be administered orally without any issues.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of adsorbent-protective agents in gastrointestinal treatment?

    <p>To adsorb toxins, bacteria, and viruses, while providing a protective coating.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Penicillamine primarily forms soluble complexes with _____ and other metals.

    <p>copper</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the gastrointestinal agents with their functions:

    <p>Bismuth Salts = Adsorb toxins and reduce irritation Activated Charcoal = Adsorb various toxins and drugs Antispasmodics = Decrease peristalsis in the gut Antibacterials = Treat infections in the intestinal tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key factor that affects the efficiency of adsorption in gastrointestinal adsorbents?

    <p>Surface area and porosity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chemical adsorption always results in reversible interactions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the magnetic moment (MM) of the complex formed by Fe(III) with six water molecules?

    <p>6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ of the surrounding environment affects the adsorption of bismuth salts in the gastrointestinal tract.

    <p>pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calcium disodium edetate (EDTA) is effective in treating mercury poisoning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hybridization occurs when six CN- ligands bond with Fe(III)?

    <p>outer orbital hybridization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    EDTA is primarily used to treat __________ poisoning by forming insoluble complexes excreted by the kidneys.

    <p>lead</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following chelating agents with their primary usage:

    <p>EDTA = Lead poisoning treatment Dimercaprol = Arsenic poisoning treatment Penicillamine = Copper accumulation disorder Disodium Edetate = Hypercalcemic states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of bismuth sub carbonate?

    <p>Antacid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bismuth subnitrate is soluble in water.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What compound forms black stools when bismuth-containing preparations are administered?

    <p>Bismuth sulfide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bismuth subcarbonate is classified as an _____ and antacid.

    <p>astringent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a recognized incompatibility of bismuth subnitrate?

    <p>Tragacanth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following bismuth compounds with their classifications:

    <p>Bismuth Subgallate = Nonofficial compound Bismuth Subsalicylate = Nonofficial compound Bismuth Subnitrate = Official compound Bismuth Subcarbonate = Official compound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What chemical reaction signifies the conversion of bismuth nitrate to bismuth hydroxide?

    <p>Bi(NO₃)₃ + 3NH₄OH → Bi(OH)₃ + 3NH₄NO₃</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which particle in an atom has a positive charge?

    <p>Proton</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neutrons have a positive charge.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principal quantum number (n) related to in an atom?

    <p>The energy level of an electron.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An electron has a mass of ________.

    <p>9.107 x 10^-28</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following quantum numbers with their meanings:

    <p>n = Principal quantum number l = Suborbital quantum number m_l = Magnetic quantum number m_s = Spin quantum number</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond is formed when both electrons in a covalent bond come from one atom's orbital?

    <p>Coordinate covalent bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrogen bonding is considered a strong interaction compared to ionic bonding.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name a molecule that serves as an example of a triple bonded compound.

    <p>Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Van der Waals forces are primarily responsible for interactions between __________ molecules.

    <p>nonpolar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of bonds with their corresponding characteristics:

    <p>Coordinate covalent bond = Both electrons in the bond come from one atom Hydrogen bond = Weak interaction between a hydrogen and an electronegative atom Van der Waals forces = Weak forces between temporary dipoles Covalent bond = Electrons are shared between two atoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding the stability of electron configurations in transition elements?

    <p>Half-filled and fully filled d orbitals represent stable configurations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ionization is the process where an atom gains electrons to form an anion.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the arrangement of elements based on atomic number, electron configuration, and chemical properties?

    <p>Periodic table</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electronegativity increases from left to right across a __________.

    <p>period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of bonds with their characteristics:

    <p>Covalent bond = Sharing electrons between atoms Ionic bond = Transfer of electrons from one atom to another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the bond angle typically associated with sp2 hybridization?

    <p>120°</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ionic bonding does not involve the sharing of electrons between two atoms.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hybridization occurs in the water molecule (H2O)?

    <p>sp3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In covalent bonding, if the electron pair is shared equally, the bond is termed ________.

    <p>nonpolar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of hybridization with their features:

    <p>sp = Bonding in linear molecules with bond angles of 180° sp2 = Bonding in planar molecules with bond angles of 120° sp3 = Bonding in tetrahedral geometry with bond angles of 109.5°</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the magnetic moment (MM) indicative of when Fe(III) complexes with six CN- ligands?

    <p>2 unpaired electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calcium disodium edetate (EDTA) is effective in treating mercury poisoning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of chelating agents in drug therapy?

    <p>They treat heavy metal poisonings and metabolic disorders.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pH of an aqueous solution of disodium edetate is typically between ______.

    <p>4.0 and 6.0</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following chelating agents with their primary usage:

    <p>EDTA = Heavy metal poisoning treatment Dimercaprol = Arsenic and mercury detoxification Penicillamine = Copper accumulation disorders Deferoxamine = Iron overload conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of bismuth sub carbonate when used as an antacid?

    <p>It provides a protective barrier in the intestines.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bismuth subnitrate is soluble in both water and alcohol.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What compound forms a black precipitate when bismuth salts react with intestinal hydrogen sulfide?

    <p>Bismuth sulfide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bismuth sub carbonate is classified as a _____ and antacid.

    <p>protective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following compounds is incompatible with bismuth subnitrate?

    <p>Tragacanth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following substances with their properties:

    <p>Bismuth Subnitrate = Insomnia in water and alcohol Activated Charcoal = Used in acute poisoning cases Kaolin = Binds toxins and bacteria Bismuth Sub Carbonate = Forms protective barrier</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main therapeutic use of milk of bismuth?

    <p>As a mild astringent-protective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is penicillamine primarily used to treat?

    <p>Wilson's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Deferoxamine mesylate is administered only orally.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What group of agents is commonly used for the treatment of mild diarrhea?

    <p>Gastrointestinal protectives, adsorbents, and cathartics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process by which a substance adheres to the surface of another is known as _____.

    <p>adsorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following chelating agents with their primary characteristics:

    <p>Penicillamine = Oral administration for heavy metal removal Deferoxamine mesylate = Parenteral administration for iron toxicity Bismuth salts = Adsorbent-protectives for gastrointestinal issues Activated charcoal = Adsorbent used for toxin binding in the gut</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors affects adsorption efficiency in gastrointestinal adsorbents?

    <p>Surface area and porosity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Physical adsorption involves the formation of strong chemical bonds between the adsorbent and adsorbate.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main concern associated with acute diarrhea?

    <p>Dehydration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the combined mass of a proton and a neutron approximately in atomic mass units (amu)?

    <p>1.67 amu</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electrons occupy discrete energy levels around the nucleus of an atom.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principle that states no two electrons can have the same set of quantum numbers?

    <p>Pauli exclusion principle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The particle with a negative charge and a very small mass of _______ is called an electron.

    <p>9.107 x 10^-28</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following quantum numbers with their descriptions:

    <p>n = Principal quantum number indicating energy level l = Suborbital quantum number indicating shape m_l = Magnetic quantum number indicating orientation m_s = Spin quantum number indicating spin direction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which element has the electron configuration that demonstrates the stability associated with a half-filled d orbital?

    <p>Copper (At.No. 29)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electronegativity decreases from left to right across any period.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between ionization energy and the shielding effect in atoms?

    <p>As the shielding effect increases, the ionization energy decreases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The elements from atomic numbers 57 to 71 are known as the __________.

    <p>lanthanides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following elements with their characteristics:

    <p>Oxygen = Forms anions by accepting electrons Copper = Has a stable half-filled d orbital Bromine = Forms anions by accepting electrons Cobalt = Can leave d ions with varying electron counts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond involves a coordinate covalent interaction where both electrons come from a single orbital on one of the atoms?

    <p>Coordinate covalent bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrogen bonding is a strong interaction found only between identical molecules.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the species that provides electrons in a coordinate covalent bond?

    <p>Donor species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ species are electron-deficient and possess empty orbitals to overlap with donor orbitals.

    <p>Acceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of interactions with their characteristics:

    <p>Hydrogen Bonding = Weak interaction involving hydrogen and electronegative atoms Van der Waals Forces = Very weak dipole interactions between molecules Coordinate Covalent Bonds = Both electrons come from the same atom's orbital Covalent Bonds = Electrons are shared between two atoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the magnetic moment (MM) of the Fe(III) complex when combined with six water molecules?

    <p>6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calcium disodium edetate (EDTA) is used in the treatment of mercury poisoning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hybridization occurs when six CN- ligands bond with Fe(III)?

    <p>outer orbital hybridization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The compound _____ is known for its use as a chelating agent and can be administered intravenously.

    <p>Dimercaprol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following chelating agents to their primary uses:

    <p>EDTA = Lead poisoning treatment Dimercaprol = Arsenic poisoning treatment Penicillamine = Copper toxicity Deferoxamine = Iron overload management</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hybridization results in four equivalent orbitals pointing toward the corners of a tetrahedron?

    <p>sp3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ionic bonding involves the sharing of electrons between two atoms.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the geometric shape associated with sp2 hybridization?

    <p>Trigonal planar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The bond angle in a molecule with sp3 hybridization is approximately _____ degrees.

    <p>109</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of covalent bonds with their characteristics:

    <p>Sigma bond = Symmetrical electron distribution around bond axis Pi bond = Asymmetrical distribution, occurring in double/triple bonds Nonpolar bond = Equal sharing of electrons between atoms Polar bond = Unequal sharing of electrons leading to partial charges</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is primarily treated using penicillamine?

    <p>Wilson's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Deferoxamine mesylate can be administered orally without any issues.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What active ingredient is responsible for forming soluble complexes with metals like lead and mercury?

    <p>Penicillamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Deferoxamine has a particular affinity for _____ ions.

    <p>ferric</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the gastrointestinal agents with their functions:

    <p>Bismuth salts = Adsorbent-protective agents Activated charcoal = Toxin binding Antispasmodics = Decrease peristalsis Antibacterials = Treat infections in the gut</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following mechanisms is involved in chemical adsorption?

    <p>Chemical bond formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Physical adsorption generally involves irreversible interactions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The usual route of administration for penicillamine is _____ .

    <p>oral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of bismuth sub carbonate?

    <p>Antacid and protective agent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bismuth subnitrate is hygroscopic and forms a hard mass in the presence of tragacanth.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What compound forms as a result of intestinal hydrogen sulfide acting on bismuth salts?

    <p>Bismuth sulfide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bismuth sub carbonate is classified as a __________ and antacid.

    <p>astringent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the bismuth compounds with their primary characteristics:

    <p>Bismuth Subnitrate = Practically insoluble in water Bismuth Subgallate = Used as an antidiarrheal Bismuth Subsalicylate = Provides protective action in the intestines Bismuth Ammonium Citrate = Commonly used for digestive disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which reaction describes the conversion of bismuth nitrate to bismuth hydroxide?

    <p>Bi(NO₃)₃ + 3NH₄OH → Bi(OH)₂ + 3NH₄NO₃</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does prolonged use of laxatives have on bowel function?

    <p>It can lead to loss of spontaneous bowel rhythm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Electronic Structure of Atoms

    • Atoms consist of:
      • A central nucleus containing protons and neutrons.
      • Electrons occupying discrete regions of space around the nucleus.
    • Key particles and their properties:
      • Neutron: Uncharged, mass of 1.675 x 10^-24 g.
      • Proton: Positive charge of one electrostatic unit (esu), mass of 1.672 x 10^-24 g.
      • Electron: Negative charge of one esu, mass of 9.107 x 10^-28 g.
    • Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom, also equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom.
    • Atomic Mass: Primarily determined by the combined mass of protons and neutrons.
    • Atomic Orbitals: Regions of space where electrons are most likely to be found.
    • Quantum Numbers: Describe properties of atomic orbitals and electrons:
      • Principal Quantum Number (n): Defines the electron's energy level. Higher 'n' values correspond to higher energy levels and greater distance from the nucleus.
      • Angular Momentum or Azimuthal Quantum Number (l): Describes the shape and size of the orbital.
        • l = 0: s orbital (spherical)
        • l = 1: p orbital (dumbbell shaped)
        • l = 2: d orbital (more complex shapes)
        • l = 3: f orbital (even more complex shapes)
      • Magnetic Quantum Number (ml): Specifies the orientation of the orbital in space.
      • Spin Quantum Number (ms): Represents the intrinsic angular momentum of an electron, often referred to as its "spin". It has two possible values: +1/2 and -1/2.
    • Aufbau Principle: Explains the filling of electron orbitals in atoms. Electrons occupy orbitals in order of increasing energy.
    • Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. This means a maximum of two electrons (with opposite spins) can occupy a single orbital.
    • Hund's Rules:
      • Electrons fill lower energy orbitals before higher energy ones.
      • Electrons enter degenerate orbitals singly, with parallel spins, remaining unpaired as long as possible.
    • Electron Configuration: The distribution of electrons in an atom's orbitals.
    • Ionization: The process of an atom losing one or more electrons, forming a positive ion (cation).
      • The most loosely held electrons are typically lost first during ionization.
      • The electronic structure of the ion may not directly reveal the orbital from which the electron was removed.
    • Transition Elements: These elements often have incompletely filled d orbitals and can form ions with varying charges.
    • Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract electrons toward itself.
      • Increases from left to right across a period and decreases from top to bottom within a group (excluding Group VIIIA).
    • Electropositivity: The tendency of an atom to lose electrons.
      • Increases from top to bottom within a group.

    Electronic Structure of Molecules

    • Forces involved in molecule formation:
      • Coulombic Attraction: Attractive force between the nucleus of one atom and the electrons of another.
      • Electron Number and Distribution: The number of electrons in the valence orbitals and their arrangement influence bond formation.
    • Types of Chemical Bonds:
      • Covalent Bond: Sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
        • Nonpolar Covalent: Equal sharing, found in homonuclear diatomic molecules (e.g., H2, Cl2).
        • Polar Covalent: Unequal sharing, found in heteronuclear diatomic molecules (e.g., HCl).
      • Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal, resulting in electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions.
    • Orbital Hybridization: The mixing of atomic orbitals to create a new set of degenerate hybrid orbitals with different spatial orientations and directional properties.
      • Number of hybrid orbitals formed equals the number of atomic orbitals involved.
    • Hybrid Orbital Types and Properties:
      • sp: Two sp orbitals, linear arrangement, found in Group II elements and unsaturated acetylenic compounds.
      • sp2: Three sp2 orbitals, trigonal planar arrangement, found in Group III elements, unsaturated ethylenic compounds.
      • sp3: Four sp3 orbitals, tetrahedral arrangement, found in Group IVA elements, saturated hydrocarbons.
    • Promotion to Hybridized States:
      • Can involve nonbonded pairs of electrons in hybrid orbitals.
      • Explains the bond angles in molecules like water (H2O).
    • Types of Bonding Interactions:
      • Ionic Bonding: Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
      • Covalent Bonding: Sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
        • Sigma (σ) Bonds: Symmetrical electron distribution along the bond axis.
        • Pi (π) Bonds: Electron distribution on both sides and perpendicular to a plane passing through the bond axis, found in double and triple bonds.
      • Coordinate Covalent Bonding: Both electrons in the bond come from a single orbital on one atom.
      • Hydrogen Bonding: Weak interaction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a lone pair of electrons on another electronegative atom.
        • Important for properties of water and biological molecules.
      • Van der Waals (London) Forces: Weak, temporary dipole-dipole attractions arising from fluctuating electron distributions.
        • Important for interactions between nonpolar molecules and in the condensation of gases.
      • Resonance: Delocalization of electrons, represented by multiple "canonical" structures.

    Coordination Compounds and Complexation

    • Coordination Compound: A central metal ion surrounded by ligands.
    • Ligands: Anions or neutral molecules that bond directly to the metal ion.
    • Coordination Number: The maximum number of ligands a metal ion can accommodate.
    • Properties of Ligands:
      • Are generally anionic or neutral molecules.
      • Possess at least one nonbonded electron pair for coordinate covalent bonding with the metal ion.
      • Stability of complexes is related to the basicity of the ligand.
    • Chelation: Formation of ring structures when polydentate ligands bind to a metal ion.
      • Five, six, and seven-membered chelate rings are usually most stable.
      • Chelating agents are used in pharmaceuticals and drug therapy.
      • Sequestering agents improve the solubility and stability of a metal ion.
    • Bonding in Complexes:
      • Hybridization of (n-1)d, ns, and np orbitals can lead to six bonding orbitals directed towards the ligands.

    Coordination Complexes

    • The text discusses the formation of coordination complexes, including the role of hybrid orbitals, magnetic moments, and chelating agents.
    • Hybrid orbitals like d2sp3 are a common type to form coordination complexes.
    • The magnetic moment (MM) of a complex is related to the number of unpaired electrons.
    • When transition metals have more than three d electrons, the complex may alter its ground state configuration which changes the number of unpaired electrons.
    • The text uses the examples of Cr(III) with six CN- forming [Cr(CN)6]-3 and Fe(III) with six H2O forming [Fe(H2O)6]3+ to illustrate these concepts.
    • Cyanato anions have a strong negative electronic field which can repel electrons in the d orbitals.
    • The strength of a ligand affects the electronic configuration and therefore impacts the magnetic moment of the complex.

    Chelating Agents

    • Chelating agents play a key role in analytical chemistry, particularly in the determination of metal concentrations.
    • Chelating agents are important to solubilize and stabilize metal ions in analytical solutions.
    • Examples of classical chelating agents in analytical solutions include citric acid in Benedict's solution and tartaric acid in Fehling's solution.
    • Both of those solutions contain copper(II) ions.
    • Chelating agents are used to prevent decomposition with trace metals in preparations including those containing hydrogen peroxide.

    Chelating Agents in Drug Therapy

    • Chelating agents are critical for treating heavy metal poisonings from elements like lead, mercury, iron etc.
    • Chelating agents also treat metabolic disorders where metals like iron and copper accumulate abnormally in tissues.
    • Important chelating agents include: calcium disodium edetate (EDTA), dimercaprol (BAL), penicillamine, and deferoxamine.

    Calcium Disodium Edetate

    • Calcium disodium edetate is a white crystalline granule used in treating heavy metal poisoning, especially from lead.
    • It forms insoluble complexes with metals which are readily excreted by the kidneys.
    • It has a strong affinity for calcium, so the disodium calcium form is used to prevent hypocalcemia (low serum calcium).
    • It can be used for poisonings caused by copper, nickel, cadmium, zinc, chromium, and manganese, but not for mercury, arsenic, or gold.
    • It is poorly absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract, so it's administered intravenously.

    Disodium Edetate

    • Disodium edetate is a white crystalline powder, soluble in water and chelates the same metals as the disodium calcium form.
    • Its primary use is in conditions related to hypercalcemia (high serum calcium).
    • It is not effective in dissolving urinary calculi (calcium-containing stones in the urinary tract).

    Dimercaprol (BAL)

    • BAL (dimercaprol) is a colorless or almost colorless liquid that is soluble in water, alcohol, and benzyl benzoate.
    • Certain heavy metals like arsenic exert toxicity by interacting with sulfhydryl (—SH) groups in enzymes critical for oxidation-reduction reactions.
    • BAL acts as a competitor with enzymes for these metals, neutralizing their effect.
    • It is used in the treatment of arsenic, mercury, and gold poisoning.
    • It is contraindicated in poisonings due to iron, cadmium, or selenium, as the resulting complexes are more toxic to the kidneys than the free metals.
    • It is administered intramuscularly.

    Penicillamine

    • Penicillamine is a white or off-white crystalline powder soluble in water and slightly soluble in alcohol.
    • It chelates copper, iron, mercury, lead, gold, and other metals.
    • Its primary use is in treating Wilson's disease, where copper accumulates in tissues, damaging the liver and brain.
    • It is effective because it resists metabolic inactivation by amino acid oxidase.
    • It is also used to treat gold dermatitis in patients on chronic gold therapy.
    • It is administered orally.

    Deferoxamine Mesylate

    • Deferoxamine mesylate is a white, crystalline, lyophilized powder that is soluble in water.
    • It is produced naturally by the bacterium Streptomyces pilosus as a ferric [Fe(III)] complex.
    • It has a strong affinity for ferric ions, forming stable, water-soluble, octahedral complexes.
    • It lacks a strong affinity for ferrous or other divalent metal ions.
    • It is used to treat acute iron toxicity.
    • It is administered intramuscularly or intravenously.

    Gastrointestinal Agents

    • This group of agents is used to treat mild diarrhea.
    • Diarrhea results from impaired digestion or absorption, leading to increased bulk in the intestinal tract.
    • Diarrhea can be caused by bacterial toxins, chemical poisons, drugs, allergies, and diseases.
    • Diarrhea can be acute or chronic.
    • The text discusses two types of diarrhea: acute and chronic.

    Antidiarrheal Agents

    • Adsorbent-protectives include bismuth salts, special clays, and activated charcoal.
    • The ideal antispasmodic agent acts directly on the smooth muscles of the gut to decrease peristalsis and increase segmentation.
    • Antibacterials are effective only in intestinal infections or epidemics caused by specific microorganisms.

    Mechanism of Adsorption

    • Adsorption is a process where a substance (adsorbate) adheres to the surface of another substance (adsorbent).
    • Gastrointestinal protectives and adsorbents, such as activated charcoal, kaolin, and clays, bind toxins, gases, and bacteria.
    • There are two types of adsorption: physical and chemical.
    • Physical adsorption occurs through weak Van der Waals forces.
    • Chemical adsorption involves stronger chemical bonds, often irreversible.

    Factors Affecting Adsorption

    • The surface area and porosity of adsorbents are critical for adsorption.
    • Polarity of the molecules plays a role.
    • pH sensitivity can affect adsorption, as some compounds change solubility based on pH.

    Bismuth-Containing Products

    • Bismuth salts are used traditionally as antidiarrheals.
    • Bismuth sub carbonate is sometimes used as an antacid.
    • Bismuth salts, while water-insoluble, slightly dissolve, and the soluble bismuth cation is thought to have a mild astringent and antiseptic action.
    • Bismuth sulfide, which forms from hydrogen sulfide in the intestines, is responsible for the black stools associated with bismuth-containing preparations.
    • Bismuth salts act by adsorbing toxins and bacteria and forming a protective barrier in the intestines.

    Bismuth Subnitrate

    • Bismuth subnitrate occurs as a white, slightly hygroscopic powder that is practically insoluble in water and alcohol.
    • It is readily dissolved by hydrochloric or nitric acid.
    • It is incompatible with tragacanth.
    • Sodium biphosphate or trisodium phosphate can overcome the incompatibility with tragacanth.
    • It is commonly used in Milk of Bismuth.

    Milk of Bismuth

    • Milk of Bismuth contains bismuth hydroxide and bismuth sub carbonate suspended in water.
    • It is classified as an astringent and antacid.

    Bismuth Subcarbonate

    • Bismuth sub carbonate is a white or pale yellowish white, odorless, tasteless powder that is practically insoluble in water and alcohol.
    • It is assayed in terms of bismuth trioxide.

    Nonofficial Bismuth Compounds

    • The text mentions three nonofficial bismuth compounds: bismuth subgallate, bismuth subsalicylate, and bismuth ammonium citrate.

    Activated Clays and Other Adsorbents

    • This group consists of clays with excellent adsorbent properties.
    • They are used industrially and clinically, especially in mild diarrhea.

    Kaolin

    • Kaolin is a native hydrated aluminum silicate powder that is insoluble in water, cold diluted acids, and alkali hydroxide solutions.
    • It binds toxins and bacteria through physical and chemical adsorption.
    • It is often found with pectin and used as an adsorbent.
    • It can interfere with intestinal absorption of lincomycin.

    Activated Charcoal

    • Activated charcoal adsorbs toxins, chemicals, and drugs.
    • It is highly porous with a large surface area that allows for adsorption of many molecules.

    Saline Cathartics

    • Saline cathartics (purgatives) speed up evacuation of bowels.
    • Laxatives are mild cathartics.
    • Cathartics can be used to ease defecation, avoid straining, prevent blood pressure increases during defecation, relieve constipation, and remove intestinal material before some x-ray studies.
    • Prolonged use of laxatives can lead to dependence, known as "laxative habit."

    Constipation

    • Constipation is infrequent or difficult feces evacuation.
    • Causes of constipation include resisting the urge to defecate, intestinal atony (lack of muscle tension), intestinal spasm, emotions, drugs, and diet.

    Laxative Types

    • Stimulant laxatives act by irritation on the intestinal tract, increasing peristalsis.
    • Bulk-forming laxatives swell with water, increasing bulk and stimulating peristalsis.
    • Emollient laxatives act as lubricants or stool softeners.
    • Saline cathartics increase osmotic load of the gastrointestinal tract, causing hypertonicity which is relieved by the body by secreting additional fluids into the intestinal tract.

    Saline Cathartic Anions

    • Poorly absorbed anions used as saline cathartics include biphosphate (H2PO4-), phosphate (HPO42-), sulfate, and tartrate.
    • Saline cathartics are water soluble and should be taken with large amounts of water to prevent dehydration and reduce nausea and vomiting.
    • They have few side effects when used for short periods.

    Saline Cathartics

    • Saline cathartics work by increasing the osmotic pressure in the intestines, drawing water into the lumen and promoting bowel movements.
    • Sodium-containing saline cathartics (sodium biphosphate, sodium phosphate, sodium sulfate, and potassium sodium tartrate) are not recommended for patients on low-sodium diets.
    • Magnesium salts should be restricted in patients with impaired renal function as some magnesium is absorbed and can have a central nervous system depressant effect.
    • Sodium biphosphate is slightly deliquescent, meaning it absorbs moisture from the air, and its solutions are acidic.
    • Sodium phosphate solutions are alkaline.
    • Sodium phosphate monohydrate has poor intestinal permeability, making it suitable for use as a saline cathartic.

    Topical Agents

    • Topical compounds are those applied to body surfaces rather than being absorbed into the bloodstream.
    • Topical drugs primarily act at the surface of application but can penetrate deeper tissues, leading to both beneficial and potentially harmful systemic effects.
    • Topical compounds are categorized based on their action: protective agents, antimicrobial agents, and astringents.

    Protective Agents

    • Protective agents are substances applied to the skin to protect certain areas from irritation, usually of mechanical origin.
    • Ideal protective agents are insoluble, chemically inert, and biologically inactive.
    • Many protectives also act as adsorbents, absorbing moisture from the skin’s surface, reducing friction and irritation.
    • Talc, a hydrous magnesium silicate, is a very fine, white or grayish white, crystalline powder with low adsorptive properties.
    • Talc is used as a lubricating, protective dusting powder.
    • Zinc oxide is a very fine, odorless, white or yellowish white powder that gradually absorbs carbon dioxide from the air.
    • Zinc oxide is insoluble in water and alcohol and is used as a mild astringent, a weak antimicrobial compound, and a topical protective in ointments for skin ulcerations and other dermatological problems.
    • Calamine is zinc oxide with a small proportion of ferric oxide, giving it a pink color.
    • Calamine is used in dusting powders, ointments, and lotions for its soothing, absorbent, and protective properties.

    Antimicrobial Agents

    • Antimicrobial agents are used to prevent and/or reduce infections caused by microorganisms.
    • Antiseptics are used to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms on living tissues.
    • Germicides kill microorganisms outright.
    • -stat (e.g., bacteriostat) refers to agents that inhibit microorganism growth without killing them.
    • Disinfectants are used to kill microorganisms on inanimate objects.
    • Sterilization is a process that completely removes or kills all microorganisms from an object.
    • Inorganic antimicrobial agents work through oxidation, halogenation, and protein precipitation.
    • Oxidation involves the reduction of groups present in proteins, particularly the sulfhydryl (-SH) group in cysteine.
    • Halogenation, occurring with antiseptics of the hypochlorite type, involves the substitution of chlorine for hydrogen in the peptide linkage of protein molecules.
    • Protein precipitation occurs when metallic ions with large charge/radius ratios interact with proteins, altering their properties.

    Hydrogen Peroxide Solution

    • Hydrogen Peroxide Solution is a clear, colorless liquid that decomposes upon standing or agitation.
    • The solution is stabilized with acids, complexing agents, or adsorbents.
    • Hydrogen peroxide can act as both an oxidizing and reducing agent.
    • Hydrogen Peroxide Solution is used as a mild oxidizing antiseptic.
    • Diluted solutions are used as a gargle or mouthwash and as a vaginal douche.

    Sodium Hypochlorite Solution

    • Sodium Hypochlorite Solution is a clear, pale greenish-yellow liquid with an odor of chlorine.
    • Household bleach is a 4.5 to 5.0% solution of sodium hypochlorite.
    • Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite Solution is prepared by diluting the original solution with five times its volume of purified water and adjusting the pH to 8.3 or lower.
    • The alkalinity and oxidizing action of concentrated solutions are too strong for use on tissues.
    • Sodium hypochlorite is used as a disinfectant and laundry bleach.
    • Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite Solution is used as an antiseptic on pus-forming wounds.
    • The solution can also be used as a foot bath to prevent fungal infections.

    Iodine Solution

    • Iodine Solution and Iodine Tincture contain the same concentration of iodine but differ in their solvent.
    • Iodine Solution is aqueous while Iodine Tincture contains approximately 50% alcohol.
    • Both solutions are transparent, reddish-brown, and have the characteristic odor of iodine.
    • The active antimicrobial agent in both preparations is iodine.
    • Iodine is a mild oxidizing agent and can oxidize iron to form ferrous iodide.
    • Iodine is easily inactivated by organic materials in the gastrointestinal tract.
    • Iodine Tincture and Iodine Solution are among the most effective topical antiseptic agents available.
    • Iodine Solution is preferred for application to wounds as the alcohol in Iodine Tincture is irritating to open tissue.
    • Iodine Tincture can be used to disinfect drinking water.
    • Povidone-Iodine is a complex of iodine with a carrier organic molecule that slowly releases iodine in solution, making it less irritating for sensitive areas and mucous membranes.

    Silver Nitrate

    • Silver Nitrate occurs as colorless or white crystals that darken on exposure to light in the presence of organic matter.
    • Solutions of silver nitrate in concentrations between 0.5 and 1.0% are used as antibacterial agents.
    • The primary activity of silver nitrate is due to the silver ion.
    • Silver ions readily precipitate proteins, both bacterial and human, leading to antibacterial, astringent, irritant, and corrosive effects depending on the concentration applied.
    • Extended use of silver preparations can cause argyria, a darkening of the skin due to the deposition of free silver below the epidermis, which is essentially irreversible.

    Silver Nitrate

    • Silver nitrate is a common antibacterial agent in solutions ranging from 0.01% to 10% concentration with higher concentrations showing astringent and irritant properties.
    • A 1% solution of silver nitrate is used as Silver Nitrate Ophthalmic Solution to prevent ophthalmia neonatorum in newborn babies.
    • Silver nitrate is effective against gonococcal organisms.
    • A 0.5% solution of silver nitrate is applied as a wet dressing on burn areas to treat third-degree burns.

    Astringents

    • Astringents are compounds that cause protein precipitation on the surface of cells, leading to coagulation and tissue constriction.
    • Astringents typically affect small blood vessels (smooth muscle) and are applied topically.
    • Astringents have limited penetration, resulting in a mild antimicrobial effect and restricting blood flow without causing cell death.

    Uses of Astringents

    • Styptic action: Stops bleeding from small cuts by promoting blood coagulation and constricting capillaries.
    • Antiperspirant: Decreases the secretion of sweat.
    • Constricts mucous membranes: Reduces inflammation by limiting blood flow to the surface.
    • Topical actions: Removes unwanted tissue or restricts protein action.
    • Higher concentrations of astringents can act as corrosive agents.
    • Common astringents include aluminum, zinc, and zirconium salts.

    Aluminum Chloride (AlCl₃·6H₂O)

    • Aluminum chloride is a Lewis acid and is soluble in water, alcohol, and glycerin.
    • It is used as an astringent and mild antiseptic in concentrations ranging from 10% to 25%.
    • It can cause irritation due to the hydrolysis of aluminum chloride, forming hydrochloric acid (HCl).
    • Initially used in antiperspirants but was found to be too irritating and damage clothing.

    Aluminum Hydroxy Chloride

    • Two possible compounds: monohydroxy chloride and dihydroxy chloride, which are both acidic but less soluble in water than aluminum chloride.
    • These compounds are less irritating and are commonly used in antiperspirants.
    • They replace the more irritating aluminum chloride in products such as deodorant sprays, creams, and solutions at concentrations around 20%.

    Zinc Chloride

    • Zinc chloride solutions are acidic due to hydrolysis, forming hydrochloric acid (HCl) and basic zinc chloride.
    • Zinc chloride solutions should be filtered through asbestos or glass wool because they can dissolve materials like paper and cotton.
    • Zinc chloride combines with zinc oxide to form zinc oxychloride, which is used in some dental cements.

    Uses of Zinc Chloride

    • Astringent & Antiseptic: Strong astringent and mild antiseptic due to its protein precipitant property.
    • Escharotic Action: Aids in tissue sloughing and scar tissue formation, promoting healing.
    • Nasal Spray & Sinus Treatment: In lower concentrations (0.5 to 2%), used on mucous membranes or as nasal sprays to aid sinus drainage.
    • Dentin Desensitizer: A 10% solution of zinc chloride is used to desensitize dentin in teeth.

    Atomic Structure

    • Atoms consist of a central nucleus surrounded by electrons occupying specific regions called orbitals.
    • The nucleus contains protons (positively charged) and neutrons (uncharged).
    • Protons and neutrons contribute most of the atom's mass.
    • The number of protons determines the atomic number of an element.
    • The sum of protons and neutrons gives the atomic mass.
    • Electrons have a negative charge and are much lighter than protons and neutrons.

    Atomic Orbitals

    • Describe the probability of finding electrons around the nucleus.
    • Each orbital is defined by four quantum numbers:
      • Principal quantum number (n): Indicates the energy level of the electron, increasing with distance from the nucleus.
      • Angular momentum or suborbital quantum number (l): Defines the shape of the orbital and has possible values from 0 to n-1 (s, p, d, f orbitals).
      • Magnetic quantum number (ml): Specifies the orbital’s spatial orientation.
      • Spin quantum number (ms): Describes the intrinsic angular momentum of an electron, with two possible values (+1/2 and -1/2) representing opposing spins.

    Electron Configuration

    • Aufbau principle: Electrons are filled in order of increasing of energy levels.
    • Pauli exclusion principle: No two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers. Therefore, a maximum of two electrons can occupy a single orbital, and they must have opposite spins.
    • Hund’s rules:
      • Lower energy orbitals are filled before higher energy orbitals.
      • Electrons enter degenerate orbitals individually with parallel spins before pairing up.
      • In transition metals, the (n-1)d orbital is often half-filled or full, leading to more stable configurations.

    Ionization

    • The process of losing one or more electrons to form a positively charged ion (cation).
    • The most loosely held electrons are removed first.
    • Transition metals often have variable oxidation states, depending on the orbital configurations.

    Periodic Table

    • Organizes elements by increasing atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.
    • Rows are called periods, and columns are called groups.
    • Groups represent the filling of s and p orbitals.
    • Transition elements occupy the central part and involve the filling of d orbitals.
    • Lanthanides and actinides are located separately and involve the filling of f orbitals.

    Electronegativity

    • The tendency of an atom to attract electrons.
    • Increases from left to right across a period and decreases down a group.
    • Electropositivity is the opposite, and increases down a group.

    Electronic Structure of Molecules

    • Three main forces involved in molecule formation:
      • Coulombic attraction between electrons and the nuclei of different atoms.
      • Number of electrons in valence shell orbitals.
      • Orbital distribution.
    • Two main bond types:
      • Covalent bonds: Formed by sharing electron pairs.
      • Ionic bonds: Formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal, resulting in electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions.
    • Orbital hybridization: Mixing of atomic orbitals to generate a set of equivalent orbitals with different spatial orientations.
      • sp hybridization: Results in two linear orbitals, 180° apart.
      • sp2 hybridization: Results in three planar orbitals, 120° apart.
      • sp3 hybridization: Results in four tetrahedral orbitals, 109° apart.

    Types of Bonding Interactions

    • Ionic bonding: Based on the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
    • Covalent bonding: Results from the sharing of electron pairs. Can be nonpolar (equal sharing) or polar (unequal sharing).
      • Sigma bonds: Formed by the direct overlap of orbitals along the bond axis.
      • Pi bonds: Formed by the sideways overlap of p orbitals, resulting in electron density above and below the bond axis.
    • Coordinate covalent bonding: Formed by one atom donating both electrons to form a bond.
    • Hydrogen bonding: Occurs when a hydrogen atom is attracted to a highly electronegative atom (F, O, N) in a neighboring molecule.
    • Van Der Waals forces: Weak, temporary interactions between molecules due to temporary distortions in electron clouds.

    Resonance

    • Indicates that electrons are delocalized over multiple atoms.
    • Represented by multiple contributing structures that depict different electron arrangements.

    Coordination Compounds and Complexation

    • Coordination compounds: Formed when a metal ion bonds with additional anions or neutral molecules called ligands.
    • Ligands: Provide electron pairs for coordination bonding and have specific geometries.
    • Coordination number: The number of ligands that can coordinate with a metal ion.
    • Chelates: Ring structures formed by polydentate ligands that bind to a metal ion.
    • Chelating agents: Polydentate ligands used to improve the solubility and stabilize metal ions.

    Bonding in Complexes

    • The (n-1)d, ns, and np orbitals can hybridize to form 6 bonding orbitals that point towards ligands.

    Coordination Complexes

    • Six ligands can bond to a transition metal center, forming an octahedral complex.
    • This octahedral complex can be formed from d2sp3 hybridization.
    • The magnetic moment (MM) of a complex is determined by the number of unpaired electrons.
    • High spin complexes utilize "outer orbital hybridization," which involves mixing the higher energy d orbitals (e.g., 4d) with s and p orbitals.
    • Low spin complexes use the lower energy d orbitals and exhibit a lower magnetic moment.

    Chelating Agents

    • Chelating agents are used in analytical chemistry to determine metal concentrations.
    • They are also employed to solubilize metals and stabilize their oxidation states, particularly in reducing agents like Benedict’s and Fehling’s solutions.
    • Chelating agents act as preservatives by binding trace metals that can cause decomposition.

    Chelating Agents in Drug Therapy

    • Chelating agents are crucial in treating heavy metal poisonings from elements like lead, mercury, and iron.
    • They are also used to manage metabolic disorders where metals accumulate in abnormal amounts.

    Calcium Disodium Edetate (EDTA)

    • EDTA is a white crystalline granule used to treat heavy metal poisoning, especially lead poisoning, by forming insoluble complexes excreted by the kidneys.
    • EDTA is also effective for other metals, like copper, nickel, cadmium, zinc, chromium, and manganese.
    • It is poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and is administered intravenously.

    Disodium Edetate

    • Disodium edetate is a white crystalline powder that chelates the same metals as calcium disodium edetate.
    • Its main use is in situations involving high blood levels of calcium, like occlusive vascular disease and cardiac arrhythmias.

    Dimercaprol (BAL)

    • BAL is a colorless liquid used to treat poisonings from arsenic, mercury, and gold.
    • It acts by competing with vital enzymes for metal ions, preventing their inactivation.
    • It is contraindicated in poisonings involving iron, cadmium, or selenium because the resulting complexes are more toxic than the free metals.

    Penicillamine

    • Penicillamine is a white crystalline powder that chelates copper, iron, mercury, lead, and gold.
    • It is primarily used to improve copper excretion in patients with Wilson’s disease.
    • Penicillamine is also effective against gold dermatitis in patients undergoing chronic gold therapy.

    Deferoxamine Mesylate

    • Deferoxamine is a white crystalline powder used for treating acute iron toxicity.
    • It has a high affinity for ferric ions, forming stable complexes that are water-soluble.
    • It is administered intramuscularly or intravenously.

    Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry: Protectives, Adsorbents, and Cathartics

    • This group of agents is used to treat mild diarrhea.
    • Diarrhea is a symptom caused by impaired digestion or absorption, leading to increased intestinal bulk and peristalsis.
    • Antidiarrheal agents are used to treat the symptoms and, occasionally, the cause, but they do not treat the complications.

    Adsorption

    • Adsorption is a process where a substance (adsorbate) adheres to the surface of another substance (adsorbent).
    • Gastrointestinal protectives and adsorbents, like activated charcoal, kaolin, and clays, bind toxins, gases, and bacteria in the gut.
    • Adsorption can be physical, involving weak Van der Waals forces, or chemical, requiring strong chemical bonds.
    • Factors influencing adsorption include the surface area and porosity of the adsorbent, the polarity of the molecules, and the pH of the surrounding environment.

    Bismuth-Containing Products

    • Bismuth salts are used as antidiarrheals due to their astringent and antiseptic properties.
    • They form insoluble bismuth sulfide in the gut, resulting in black stools.
    • Bismuth subnitrate is a white powder commonly used in Milk of Bismuth, acting as a mild astringent-protective.
    • Bismuth sub carbonate is a white powder that is practically insoluble in water.

    Activated Clays and Other Adsorbents

    • Activated clays have excellent adsorbent properties and are used in treating mild diarrhea.
    • Kaolin is a hydrated aluminum silicate that binds toxins and bacteria through physical and chemical adsorption.
    • Activated charcoal is used for adsorbing large organic molecules like bacterial toxins, chemicals, and drugs.

    Saline Cathartics

    • Saline cathartics (purgatives) act by increasing the osmotic load in the gut, stimulating peristalsis.
    • They are salts of poorly absorbable anions like phosphate, sulfate, and tartrate.
    • Saline cathartics are used for short-term therapy to ease defecation, relieve constipation, and remove solid material for medical procedures.

    Constipation

    • Constipation is the infrequent or difficult evacuation of feces.
    • It can be caused by resisting the urge to defecate, intestinal atony, intestinal spasm, emotions, drugs, and diet.

    Types of Laxatives

    • Stimulant laxatives irritate the intestinal tract, increasing peristalsis.
    • Bulk-forming laxatives swell in the gut, stimulating peristalsis.
    • Emollient laxatives lubricate the feces or soften the stool.
    • Saline cathartics increase the osmotic load in the gut, stimulating fluid secretion and peristalsis.

    Saline Cathartics

    • Sodium Biphosphate is a colorless, slightly deliquescent powder that acts as a urinary acidifier and cathartic (Phospho-Soda, Vacuetts, and Sal Hepatica).
    • Sodium Phosphate is a colorless or white granular salt that is alkaline in solution and acts as a saline cathartic (Fleet Enema, Phospho-Soda).
    • Dried Sodium Phosphate absorbs moisture readily, making it suitable for use in effervescent sodium phosphate products that contain sodium bicarbonate, tartaric acid, and citric acid.

    Topical Agents

    Protectives

    • Talc, a hydrous magnesium silicate, provides lubrication and protection from friction and irritation.
    • Zinc Oxide is a fine, white powder that acts as a mild astringent and weak antimicrobial agent.
    • Calamine is zinc oxide with a small portion of ferric oxide, giving it a pink color and making it a topical protective.

    Antimicrobial Agents

    • Antiseptic is a substance that kills or inhibits microorganisms on living tissues to prevent infection.
    • Germicide is a term that includes agents that kill microorganisms outright, such as bactericides, fungicides, and amebicides.
    • -stat refers to agents that inhibit the growth of microorganisms without killing them, e.g., a bacteriostat.
    • Disinfectant is a chemical used to kill microorganisms on inanimate objects but not safe for use on living tissue.
    • Sterilization is the process that eliminates all microorganisms from an object, making it free of any life.
    • Oxidation is a mechanism of action for inorganic antimicrobial agents that involves the reaction of these compounds with reducing groups in proteins, specifically sulfhydryl (-SH) groups.
    • Halogenation is a reaction that involves the substitution of a chlorine atom for a hydrogen atom in the peptide linkage of proteins, causing changes in the protein's structure and function.
    • Protein Precipitation is a mechanism that involves the interaction of proteins with metallic ions, such as Cu(II), Ag(I), and Zn(II), forming complexes and altering protein properties.

    Specific Examples

    • Hydrogen Peroxide Solution is a clear, colorless liquid that acts as a mild oxidizing antiseptic through its decomposition into water and oxygen when exposed to the enzyme catalase.
    • Sodium Hypochlorite Solution is a strong oxidizing agent used as a disinfectant and laundry bleach. Its diluted form is used as an antiseptic but has disadvantages such as dissolving sutures and blood clots.
    • Iodine Solution and Iodine Tincture contain iodine as the active antimicrobial agent. Iodine Tincture is preferred for disinfecting wounds, while Iodine Solution is used for disinfecting drinking water.
    • Silver Nitrate is a colorless or white crystal that becomes gray upon exposure to light and organic matter. It acts as an antibacterial agent through its interaction with proteins.

    Silver Nitrate

    • Silver nitrate is utilized as an antibacterial agent in solutions ranging from 0.01% to 10%.
    • Higher concentrations possess astringent and irritant properties to the tissues.
    • A 1% solution of Silver Nitrate Ophthalmic Solution is used to instill in the eyes of newborn babies.
    • Silver salts are effective against gonococcal organisms, and two drops of a 1% solution are instilled in each eye as a prophylactic measure against ophthalmia neonatorum.
    • A 0.5% aqueous solution of silver nitrate is applied as a wet dressing to treat third-degree burns.

    Astringent Agents: General Properties and Uses

    • Astringents cause protein precipitation on cell surfaces, leading to protein coagulation and tissue constriction without causing deep damage.
    • They act on small blood vessels (smooth muscle) and are applied topically.
    • Astringents have limited penetration, causing mild antimicrobial effects and restricting blood flow while not killing cells.
    • Uses include:
      • Styptic action: Stops bleeding from small cuts by promoting coagulation and constricting capillaries.
      • Antiperspirant: Reduces sweat secretion.
      • Constrict mucous membranes: Reduces inflammation by limiting blood flow to the surface.
      • Topical actions: Removes unwanted tissue or restricts protein action, often used at higher concentrations as a corrosive agent.

    Aluminum Chloride

    • Aluminum chloride (AlCl₃·6H₂O) acts as a Lewis acid.
    • Highly soluble in water, alcohol, and glycerin, producing an acidic solution.
    • Used in aqueous solutions as an astringent and mild antiseptic, with concentrations ranging from 10% to 25%.
    • Can cause irritation to tissue due to hydrolysis forming hydrochloric acid (HCl).
    • Initially used as an antiperspirant but was too irritating and could damage clothing.

    Aluminum Hydroxy Chloride

    • Refers to monohydroxy chloride and dihydroxy chloride.
    • Both are acidic but less soluble in water than aluminum chloride.
    • Less irritating and commonly used in commercial antiperspirants.
    • Replaced the more irritating aluminum chloride in products like deodorant sprays, creams, and solutions.
    • Used at concentrations around 20%.

    Zinc Chloride

    • Zinc chloride solutions are acidic due to hydrolysis, which forms hydrochloric acid (HCl) and basic zinc chloride.
    • Solutions should be filtered through asbestos or glass wool as they can dissolve materials like paper and cotton.
    • When mixed with zinc oxide, it forms zinc oxychloride, a hard mass used in some dental cements.
    • Uses include:
      • Astringent & Antiseptic: Strong protein precipitant, making it a strong astringent and mild antiseptic.
      • Escharotic Action: Aids in tissue sloughing and scar tissue formation, which helps in healing.
      • Nasal Spray & Sinus Treatment: Used in lower concentrations (0.5 to 2%) as a nasal spray to aid sinus drainage.
      • Dentin Desensitizer: A 10% solution is applied to teeth to act as a desensitizer of dentin.

    Electronic Structure of Atoms

    • Atoms consist of a central nucleus surrounded by electrons occupying distinct regions of space.
    • The nucleus contains protons (positive charge) and neutrons (no charge) - these contribute to the atom's mass.
    • Atomic number: number of protons, which equals the number of electrons in a neutral atom.
    • Atomic mass: sum of the masses of protons and neutrons.
    • Atomic orbital: the region of space containing electrons, defined by four quantum numbers.
      • Principal quantum number (n): indicates the electron's energy level; increases as an electron is farther from the nucleus.
      • Suborbital quantum number (l): describes the shape and size of the region where the electron is most likely to be found. l = 0 (s orbital), l = 1 (p orbital), l = 2 (d orbital), l = 3 (f orbital).
      • Magnetic quantum number (ml): describes the spatial orientation of the orbital.
      • Spin quantum number (ms): represents the magnetic moment of the electron, which is oriented in one of two directions (+1/2 or -1/2). If two electrons occupy the same orbital, they have opposing spins.
    • Aufbau principle: used to determine the electron configuration of an atom, molecule, or ion. Electrons are added progressively to orbitals based on their energy levels.
    • Pauli exclusion principle: in an atom, no two electrons can have the same values for all four quantum numbers. A maximum of two electrons with opposite spins can occupy a single orbital.
    • Hund's rule:
      • Lower energy orbitals are filled before higher energy orbitals.
      • Electrons enter degenerate orbitals singly and with parallel spins, remaining unpaired as long as possible.
    • Electronic configuration: the arrangement of electrons in an atom's orbitals based on energy level, subshells, and electron count.

    Ionization

    • Ionization is the process of an atom losing one or more electrons through chemical or physical means. The resulting positively charged ion is called a cation.
    • The electrons lost during ionization are typically the most loosely held.
    • The electronic structure of an ion doesn't always reveal the origin of the lost electrons. This is particularly true for transition metals, where orbital energy levels can change as the electron configuration adjusts.
    • Transition metals with incompletely filled d orbitals often form ions with varying numbers of electrons in the d orbitals. For example, Cobalt can lose electrons from both the 4s and 3d orbitals.
    • Elements in Groups VIA and VIIA with many electrons in their p orbitals tend to form anions by gaining electrons, leading to a fully filled p orbital valence shell configuration, similar to the inert gas within the same period.

    Periodic Table

    • The periodic table organizes chemical elements by increasing atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.
    • It comprises 18 columns (groups) and 7 rows (periods).
    • Groups correspond to the filling of s and p orbitals, with principal quantum numbers matching the period number.
    • Transition metals occur in the "B groups" between Groups IIA and IIIA, resulting from the filling of d orbitals.
    • Group VIII (the "real" transition elements) occur between the group with half-filled d orbitals (VIIB) and the group with full d orbitals (IB).
    • The lanthanides (atomic numbers 57-71) and actinides (atomic numbers 89-103) occur separately below the main portion, due to filling of f orbitals.
    • Electronegativity: an element's affinity for electrons and its tendency to take on additional electrons. Increases from left to right across a period and from bottom to top within a group (except Group VIIIA).
    • Electropositivity: the opposite of electronegativity, with trends in the opposite direction.
    • The ability to lose electrons increases as we move down a group due to the shielding effect of inner electrons.

    Electronic Structure of Molecules

    • Three major forces contribute to molecule formation:
      • Coulombic attraction: attraction of electrons in one atom's valence orbitals to the positive nucleus of another atom.
      • Valence shell electron count: The number of electrons in the valence orbitals of the atoms involved.
      • Orbital distribution: The arrangement of the valence orbitals.
    • Types of bonds:
      • Covalent bond: equal or unequal sharing of an electron pair between two atoms.
        • Nonpolar covalent bond: equal sharing of electron pairs in homonuclear diatomic molecules (e.g., H2, Cl2, I2).
        • Polar covalent bond: unequal sharing of electron pairs in heteronuclear diatomic molecules (e.g., HCl)
      • Ionic bond: electrostatic interaction arising from the transfer of electrons from an electropositive atom to an electronegative atom (e.g., Na+Cl-).
    • Orbital hybridization: the "mixing" of atomic orbitals to form a new set of degenerate orbitals with different spatial orientations and directional properties.
      • sp hybridization: one s and one p orbital combine to produce two equivalent sp orbitals oriented 180° apart.
      • sp2 hybridization: one s and two p orbitals combine to form three equivalent sp2 orbitals oriented in the same plane, 120° apart.
      • sp3 hybridization: one s and three p orbitals combine to form four equivalent sp3 orbitals oriented toward the corners of a tetrahedron.
    • Promotion: atoms can move electrons to higher energy levels to increase their bonding capacity, promoting them to a hybridized state.
    • Types of bonding interactions:
      • Ionic bonding: electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged entities (cations and anions).
      • Covalent bonding: sharing of electron pairs between entities.
      • Coordinate covalent bonding: a covalent bond where both electrons come from a single orbital on one atom (the donor), interacting with an empty orbital on the other atom (the acceptor). This is common between complex chemical entities and in acid-base chemistry.
      • Hydrogen bonding: weak attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (e.g., O, N, F) and the nonbonding electrons on a neighboring electronegative atom. It plays a significant role in the properties of water and influences drug-receptor interactions.
      • Van der Waals (London) forces: weak attractive forces between molecules or atoms arising from temporary fluctuations in electron distribution, creating temporary dipoles.

    Coordination Compounds and Complexation

    • Coordination compound: composed of a metallic cation bonded with additional anions or neutral molecules (ligands).
    • Ligands: bond directly to the metal cation.
    • Coordination number: the maximum number of ligands a metal ion can accommodate, depending on the metal and its charge.
    • Properties of Ligands:
      • Typically anions or neutral molecules, not neutral atoms.
      • Possess at least one lone pair of electrons for coordinate covalent bonding with the metal ion.
      • More stable complexes form with ligands containing elements in Groups VA, VIA, or VIIA, typically following the order of basicity.
      • Classified based on the number of positions on the ligand molecule capable of coordinating with a metal (e.g., monodentate, bidentate).
    • Chelation: When polydentate ligands complex a metal ion, a ring structure forms, creating a chelate.
    • More stable chelates have ring sizes including the metal of five, six, or seven atoms.
    • Polydentate ligands used for chelate formation are called chelating agents.
    • The term sequestering agent is used when a polydentate ligand increases the solubility or stabilizes a metal ion through chelation.

    Bonding in Complexes

    • The (n-1)d, ns, and np orbitals of the metal can hybridize into six bonding orbitals, directed along the same axes as the ligands.### Hybrid Orbitals

    • Cr(III) complexing with six CN- ligands forms a d2sp3 hybrid orbital.

    • Fe(III) complexing with 6 water molecules forms an outer orbital hybrid.

    • Fe(III) complexing with 6 CN- ligands forms a d2sp3 hybrid.

    Complexation in Analytical Chemistry

    • Complexation is used in analytical chemistry to determine metal concentrations.
    • Chelating agents are used to solubilize and stabilize metal ions.
    • Benedict's and Fehling's solutions contain copper(II) ions chelated by citric and tartaric acids.
    • Chelating agents are used as preservatives to prevent decomposition due to trace metals.

    Complexation in Drug Therapy

    • Chelating agents are used to treat heavy metal poisonings.
    • They are used to treat metabolic disorders involving metal accumulation in tissues.

    Chelating Agents

    • Calcium disodium edetate (EDTA) is used to treat lead poisoning.
    • EDTA forms an insoluble complex with lead, which is excreted by the kidneys.
    • EDTA has a strong affinity for calcium, so the disodium calcium form is preferred.
    • EDTA can also be used to treat poisonings due to copper, nickel, cadmium, zinc, chromium, and manganese.
    • Disodium edetate is used in conditions related to hypercalcemic states.
    • Dimercaprol (BAL) is used to treat poisoning from arsenic, mercury, and gold.
    • BAL competes with enzymes for these metals.
    • Penicillamine is used to improve copper excretion in patients with Wilson's disease.
    • Penicillamine can also be used to treat gold dermatitis.
    • Deferoxamine mesylate is used to treat acute iron toxicity.

    Inorganic Pharmaceutical Chemistry: Protectives, Adsorbents and Cathartics

    • This group of gastrointestinal agents is used to treat mild diarrhea.
    • Diarrhea is a symptom of impaired digestion or absorption, leading to increased intestinal bulk.
    • Acute diarrhea can be caused by bacterial toxins, chemical poisons, drugs, or allergy.
    • Chronic diarrhea can result from gastrointestinal surgery, carcinomas, or inflammatory conditions.
    • Most antidiarrheal products contain an adsorbent-protective, an antispasmodic, and possibly an antibacterial agent.
    • Antispasmodics act on the smooth muscle of the gut to decrease peristalsis.
    • Antibacterials are only effective if there is an intestinal infection.
    • Adsorbent-protectives bind to toxins and bacteria to provide a protective coating for the intestinal mucosa.

    Mechanism of Adsorption

    • Adsorption is a process where a substance (adsorbate) adheres to the surface of another (adsorbent).
    • Activated charcoal, kaolin, and clays act as adsorbents in the gastrointestinal tract.
    • Physical adsorption involves weak van der Waals forces.
    • Chemical adsorption involves the formation of strong chemical bonds between adsorbent and adsorbate.

    Factors Affecting Adsorption

    • Surface area and porosity: Adsorbents with high surface areas and porous structures adsorb more substances.
    • Polarity: Polar adsorbents bind polar molecules, while non-polar adsorbents bind non-polar molecules.
    • pH sensitivity: The pH of the environment can influence the efficiency of adsorption.

    Bismuth-Containing Products

    • Bismuth salts are used as antidiarrheals.
    • Bismuth subcarbonate also acts as an antacid.
    • Soluble bismuth cations exert a mild astringent and antiseptic action.
    • Bismuth salts react with intestinal hydrogen sulfide to form bismuth sulfide, resulting in black stools.
    • Bismuth subnitrate occurs as a white powder, insoluble in water but soluble in acids.
    • Bismuth subcarbonate is practically insoluble in water but dissolves in acids.

    Milk of Bismuth

    • It contains bismuth hydroxide and bismuth subcarbonate in suspension.
    • Classified as an astringent and antacid.

    Activated Clays and Other Adsorbents

    • Clays have excellent adsorbent properties.
    • Kaolin is a hydrated aluminum silicate and is insoluble in water, acids, and alkalis.
    • Activated charcoal is used as an adsorbent in the treatment of diarrhea and certain types of poisoning.

    Saline Cathartics

    • Saline cathartics quicken and increase evacuation from the bowels.
    • They are used to ease defecation, avoid increased abdominal pressure, relieve acute constipation, and remove solid material from the intestine.
    • Prolonged use can lead to laxative dependency.
    • They act by increasing the osmotic load of the gastrointestinal tract, leading to increased fluid secretion and bulk.
    • Saline cathartics include salts of poorly absorbable anions: biphosphate, phosphate, sulfate, and tartrate.

    Types of laxatives

    • Stimulant laxatives irritate the intestinal tract to increase peristaltic activity.
    • Bulk-forming laxatives swell when wet to stimulate peristalsis.
    • Emollient laxatives lubricate the passage of fecal material or soften the stool.
    • Saline cathartics increase the osmotic load of the gastrointestinal tract to stimulate peristalsis.

    Saline Cathartics

    • Saline cathartics work by increasing the osmotic pressure of the intestinal tract, drawing water into the lumen and promoting bowel movements.
    • Sodium biphosphate (NaH₂PO₄) is a saline cathartic readily soluble in water. Its solutions are acidic and effervesce with sodium carbonate.
    • Sodium phosphate (Na₂HPO₄) is a saline cathartic that is freely soluble in water but very slightly soluble in alcohol.
    • Dried Sodium Phosphate is a nearly anhydrous powder that readily absorbs moisture and is used in effervescent preparations.
    • Magnesium salts should be restricted in patients with impaired renal function due to potential magnesium absorption and its central nervous system depressant effect.

    Topical Agents

    • Topical agents are applied to body surfaces, in contrast to systemic drugs, which are absorbed into the bloodstream.
    • Protective agents are insoluble and chemically inert substances that protect the skin from irritation.
    • Talc is a very fine, white or grayish white, crystalline powder that adheres readily to the skin and is used as a lubricating, protective dusting powder.
    • Zinc Oxide (ZnO) is a fine, odorless, white or yellowish white powder that acts as a mild astringent and a weak antimicrobial agent.
    • Calamine (ZnO⋅xFe₂O₃) is zinc oxide with a small proportion of ferric oxide, giving it a pink color. It is used for its soothing, absorbent, and protective properties.

    Antimicrobial Agents

    • Antimicrobial agents are chemicals that prevent or reduce infection caused by microorganisms.
    • Antiseptics kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms on living tissues.
    • Germicides kill microorganisms directly.
    • -stat (e.g., bacteriostat) refers to agents that inhibit the growth of microorganisms without killing them.
    • Disinfectants kill microorganisms on inanimate objects but are not safe for use on living tissue.
    • Sterilization eliminates all microorganisms from an object.

    Mechanisms of Action of Inorganic Antimicrobial Agents

    • Oxidation: These compounds (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, permanganates, halogens) act by oxidizing reducing groups in proteins, altering protein function.
    • Halogenation: This reaction occurs with hypohalite-type antiseptics, causing changes in protein conformation and function.
    • Protein precipitation: Interactions between proteins and metal ions with large charge/radius ratios or strong electrostatic fields (e.g., Cu(II), Ag(I), Zn(II)) can precipitate proteins.

    Hydrogen Peroxide Solution (H₂O₂)

    • Hydrogen Peroxide Solution is a clear, colorless liquid that decomposes upon standing or agitation.
    • It acts as a mild oxidizing antiseptic, decomposing to water and oxygen upon contact with tissue, leading to the killing of microorganisms.
    • It can be used as a gargle or mouthwash and as a vaginal douche.

    Sodium Hypochlorite Solution

    • Sodium Hypochlorite Solution is a clear, pale greenish-yellow liquid with a chlorine odor.
    • Household bleach is a 4.5 to 5.0% solution of sodium hypochlorite.
    • It is a strong oxidizing agent that releases chlorine and oxygen, exhibiting antibacterial properties.
    • It is used as a disinfectant, laundry bleach, and in the past, as an antiseptic on wounds.

    Iodine Solution

    • Iodine Solution and Iodine Tincture contain the same concentrations of ingredients but differ in the solvent used.
    • Both are transparent, reddish-brown liquids with the characteristic odor of iodine.
    • Iodine acts as a mild oxidizing agent, believed to mediate its action through the formation of hypoiodous acid (HIO).
    • Both solutions are effective topical antiseptics, with Iodine Tincture possibly being more suitable due to the alcohol's penetration-enhancing effect.

    Silver Nitrate (AgNO₃)

    • Silver Nitrate occurs as colorless or white crystals that darken upon exposure to light and organic matter.
    • Solutions of silver nitrate are used as antibacterial agents, with the silver ion (Ag⁺) being the active antimicrobial agent.
    • Silver ions precipitate proteins, acting as an antibacterial, astringent, irritant, and corrosive agent depending on the concentration used.
    • Prolonged use can cause argyria, a permanent darkening of the skin due to silver deposition.

    Silver Nitrate

    • Silver nitrate is used as an antibacterial agent in concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 10%
    • Higher concentrations of silver nitrate can be astringent and irritate tissues
    • A 1% solution of silver nitrate (Silver Nitrate Ophthalmic Solution) is instilled into the eyes of newborn babies to prevent ophthalmia neonatorum (a bacterial infection)

    Astringents

    • Astringents cause protein precipitation on the surface of cells
    • This leads to protein coagulation and tissue constriction without causing deep damage
    • Astringents are applied topically and have a limited penetration into tissues
    • Astringents have a mild antimicrobial effect and restrict blood flow but do not kill cells

    Uses of Astringents

    • Styptic action: Stops bleeding from small cuts by promoting blood coagulation and constricting capillaries
    • Antiperspirant: Decreases the secretion of sweat
    • Constricts mucous membranes: Reduces inflammation by limiting blood flow to the surface
    • Topical actions: Removes unwanted tissue or restricts protein action; can be used at higher concentrations as a corrosive agent

    Aluminum Chloride

    • Aluminum chloride acts as a Lewis acid and is soluble in water, alcohol, and glycerin
    • It is used in aqueous solutions as an astringent and mild antiseptic (concentrations: 10% to 25%)
    • It irritates tissues due to the hydrolysis of aluminum chloride, which forms hydrochloric acid (HCl)
    • Aluminum chloride was initially used as an antiperspirant but was too irritating and damaged clothing

    Aluminum Hydroxy Chloride

    • Aluminum hydroxy chloride refers to two compounds: monohydroxy chloride and dihydroxy chloride
    • Both compounds are acidic but less soluble in water than aluminum chloride
    • These compounds are less irritating than aluminum chloride and are commonly used in commercial antiperspirants
    • They are used in deodorant sprays, creams, and solutions in concentrations around 20%

    Zinc Chloride

    • Zinc chloride solutions are acidic due to hydrolysis, which forms hydrochloric acid (HCl) and basic zinc chloride
    • Zinc chloride solutions can dissolve materials like paper and cotton, so they need to be filtered through asbestos or glass wool
    • When zinc chloride is mixed with zinc oxide, it forms a hard mass used in some dental cements

    Uses of Zinc Chloride

    • Astringent & Antiseptic: Strong astringent and mild antiseptic due to its protein precipitation properties
    • Escharotic Action: Helps in tissue sloughing and scar tissue formation
    • Nasal Spray & Sinus Treatment: Used in low concentrations (0.5 to 2%) as a nasal spray to aid sinus drainage
    • Dentin Desensitizer: A 10% solution is applied to teeth to act as a dentin desensitizer

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    Test your knowledge on quantum numbers, electron configurations, and bonding in this Chemistry Chapter 5 quiz. Answer questions about protons, electrons, and hybridization to solidify your understanding of these fundamental chemistry concepts.

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