166 Questions
Which term refers to the solubility product constant?
Ksp
What is the value of Kcat affected by when there are fewer H ions present?
Increasing
Which decay process involves the emission of an alpha particle?
Alpha decay
What is the relationship between Q and Keq for reactions that move towards equilibrium?
Q=Keq
Which material effectively blocks gamma radiation?
Lead
In the formula for Gibbs Free Energy Change, what does 'T' represent?
Temperature
What does the atomic weight represent?
Mass of an element
Which process is associated with Exergonic reactions?
Exothermic
What is the characteristic range for C=O stretching in the IR spectrum?
1650-1800 cm-1
Which process refers to the removal of carboxyl groups and the release of CO2?
Decarboxylation
In the IR spectrum, which range is associated with the Alkyne C-H stretch?
2100-2260 cm-1
Which region in the IR spectrum is known as the Fingerprint region?
500-1000 cm-1
What does Reduction refer to?
Addition of electrons and decrease in oxidation number
Which term refers to the process of converting a trans isomer to a cis isomer?
Isomerization
What type of change is associated with Dehydration?
Removal of water with bond creation
'Heat of Fusion' refers to the transition from which phase to which phase?
Solid to liquid
Which type of isomers differ by rotation around a carbon-carbon single bond?
Conformational Isomers
In which direction does current move in an electrolytic cell?
From right to left
What happens at the cathode in an electrochemical cell?
Undergoes reduction
Which cells spontaneously undergo oxidation-reduction reactions to produce electrical energy?
Galvanic Cells
What is the formula for calculating cell potential (E cell) in an electrochemical cell?
$E_{cell} = E_{cathode} + E_{anode}$
What is the definition of half-life?
Time it takes for all radioactive nuclei to decay into daughter nuclei
Which type of cells use an energy source to drive a chemical reaction between the electrodes?
Electrolytic Cells
Which technique separates components in a mixture based on their polarity?
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
In Gram staining, which color is associated with Gram-positive bacteria?
Red
What is the purpose of radiolabeling with S-35?
To measure amino acids containing sulfur
Which technique separates molecules based on their boiling points?
Gas-Liquid Chromatography
Which type of reaction is characterized by a gain of free energy and a positive change in enthalpy and negative change in entropy?
Endergonic
Which of the following statements about Lewis acids is true?
Lewis acids accept electrons
What type of reaction requires the presence of two carbonyl groups?
Aldol Condensation
Which technique separates compounds based on their charge?
Ion-exchange chromatography
What is the relationship between the 2nd ionization energy of elements in Group 1 compared to elements in Group 2?
2nd IE is higher in Group 1 than Group 2
What do Alkali Metals (Group 1) form when they react with water?
Metal hydroxide
Hydrolysis is a spontaneous reaction that involves:
Addition of water to break peptide bonds
Enamine Formation involves the addition of which compound to a carbonyl group?
Second amine
In which type of reaction do products have lower free energy than reactants, leading to a negative change in free energy?
Exergonic
What is the key characteristic of Optical Isomers (Enantiomers) that distinguishes them?
Difference in spatial arrangement of groups around a double bond
What is the main difference between Geometric Isomers (Cis/Trans) in a molecule?
Difference in orientation around a C-C double bond
'Low Km = high affinity between E and S' refers to which parameter in enzyme kinetics?
[S] concentration
Which theory states that emotions and responses happen simultaneously?
Cannon-Bard Theory
What does neuroticism refer to?
Tendency towards negative emotions or emotional instability
Which social theory focuses on defining what is real based on social actors?
Social constructionism
What does educational stratification lead to?
Produce inequality in educational access
What does social facilitation refer to?
Performing better with others around
What is the process by which individuals become members of a group and learn its standards?
Agent of Socialization
'Social disorganization theory' suggests that crime and deviance are likely to occur in communities with:
'Weak social ties and control'
'Racialization' refers to the process where one group assigns a racial identity to another group. In this context, which term refers to the dominant group?
'Primary Group'
What is the primary difference between Type 1 error and Type 2 error?
Type 1 error leads to false positives, while Type 2 error leads to false negatives.
According to General Adaption Syndrome, what characterizes the Resistance stage?
Increased resistance to stress, with hyper-adrenal function.
Which theory suggests that all memories fade over time?
Trace Decay Theory
What does the Self-Efficacy concept refer to?
One's belief in their ability to succeed in a given situation.
According to Strain Theory, why do people experience tension?
Due to a mismatch between goals and available means.
What is the defining characteristic of Flashbulb memory?
Highly detailed and long-lasting memories.
'Role Ambiguity' occurs when:
There is a lack of clarity associated with role responsibilities.
'Self-Esteem' can be defined as:
How one thinks about themselves.
What is the role of GABA in the brain?
Regulates mood and appetite
What enzyme is responsible for metabolizing serotonin first?
Monoamine oxidase
Which imaging technique captures neural activity in the brain?
EEG
What effect does inhibiting L-aromatic amino acid carboxylase have on serotonin production?
Decreases serotonin production
Which neurotransmitter plays a key role in self-determination and psychological growth?
Serotonin
What is the primary function of PET scans in neuroscience?
Measure neural activity
What happens if tryptophan-5-hydroxylase is inhibited in serotonin production?
Decreases serotonin production
How does a negative correlation PET scan differ from an EEG?
Captures neural activity directly
Why is balancing aided by keeping eyes open, despite the vestibular sense being required for balance?
Sensory interaction allows vision to influence the vestibular sense.
Which personality trait is characterized by being organized and hard-working?
Conscientiousness
What is the main concept behind self-serving bias?
Seeing oneself positively to boost self-esteem
Which process involves persuading someone to do something using force or threats?
Coercion
What defines neuroticism as a personality trait?
Being nervous, worried, and emotionally unstable
What does open-mindedness and willingness to try new things describe?
Openness
In what scenario does self-verification play a key role?
Seeking out information consistent with one's self-concept
What stage of Erikson's psychosocial development theory occurs during the age range of 18 months to 3 years?
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
Which cognitive development stage, according to Piaget, is characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism?
Preoperational
In the context of cognitive processing, what does 'bottom-up processing' involve?
Individual element to the whole
What psychological concept refers to the tendency to believe that good actions are rewarded and bad actions are punished?
Just-World Hypothesis
'Motion parallax' is a depth perception cue, but it is NOT relevant to which activity?
Balancing on one foot
'Life course perspective on health behavior' focuses on the impact of early life events on later health outcomes. Which age range is most relevant in this perspective?
0-2 years
'Iron Law of Oligarchy' describes the tendency of organizations to be dominated by a small group of people. Which stage of life according to Erikson's theory is associated with this tendency?
Generativity vs. Stagnation
What is the consequence of a deficiency in ADH?
Excessive thirst
Which condition is characterized by low levels of aldosterone?
Hypovolemia
What is a characteristic of the Parasympathetic Nervous System?
Synapse close to the effector organ
What is a characteristic of the Somatic Nervous System?
Associated with voluntary control of body movements through stimulation of skeletal muscle
What happens in the body during hyponatremia?
Blood sodium levels are too low
Which condition is associated with low potassium levels?
Hypokalemia
'Enteric NS' is responsible for the involuntary control of which bodily function?
Gastrointestinal functioning
Which receptors are sensitive to light and found in the eye's retina?
Photoreceptors
What type of junctions strengthen cell-to-cell connections by binding adjacent cells' cytoskeletons?
Desmosomes
Which body fluid regulation is associated with the secretion of ADH?
Thirst regulation
What do Gap junctions allow for rapid exchange of between cells?
Oxygen
Which scans reveal information about metabolic activity?
PET scans
What is the primary function of Mechanoreceptors?
Sense mechanical forces and pressure changes
Which ion-dependent transmembrane glycoproteins mediate cell-cell adhesion by binding to cadherins?
Cadherins
Which skin cells are involved in the sense of touch and are found in the epidermis?
Merkel cells
What is the role of Erythropoietin (EPO) in the body?
Stimulates RBC production in bone marrow
What is the primary function of Parathyroid Hormone?
Increase blood Ca2+ levels
Which hormone directly increases testosterone production?
LH
What is the function of Calcitonin in the body?
Decreases blood Ca2+ levels
What is the function of hemidesmosomes in cells?
Attach cells to the extracellular matrix
Which reflex involves the spreading of a baby's toes and lifting of its big toe when the baby's sole is stimulated?
Babinski reflex
Which enzyme is responsible for binding two DNA fragments together by phosphodiester bonds?
Ligases
What do dendritic cells specialize in?
Immune response in the skin and mucous membranes
What is the main role of primase in DNA replication?
Produce an RNA primer for DNA replication
What is the purpose of topoisomerase in DNA replication?
Relieve overwinding of DNA strands
What is the primary function of ribosomes in a cell?
Synthesizing proteins
Where does the PCO2 levels tend to be higher?
Veins
What is the main function of arterioles?
To regulate blood flow and pressure by dilating and constricting
What is the role of the renal artery?
Carry oxygenated blood from the aorta to the kidneys
Which blood vessel carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium?
Pulmonary vein
What is the main characteristic of veins compared to arteries?
Thinner walls and lower pressure
Which vessels carry blood away from the heart?
Arteries
What is the main function of capillaries in the circulatory system?
Allow exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products between blood and tissues
According to Bernoulli's Continuity Equation, what happens to the water velocity flow when the volume is constant?
It remains the same
In Archimedes' Principle, what happens when the buoyant force on an object exceeds the weight of the object?
The object will float
What does Bernoulli's Equation predict to happen to pressure when the velocity increases?
Pressure decreases
What is the function of the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics?
Establishes thermal equilibrium relations
In Thermodynamics, what does the 2nd Law state about the entropy of an isolated system?
Entropies increase
What does the 1st Law of Thermodynamics dictate about energy in an isolated system?
Energy remains constant in change
According to Bernoulli's Equation, what happens to fluid flow in ideal conditions?
"Fluid must remain the same volume"
"Which law of Thermodynamics describes energy conservation"
"1st Law"
In the context of capacitors, what happens to the electric field between two plates when a dielectric material is added?
It decreases
When a charged capacitor has its battery disconnected from the circuit, what happens to the voltage across the capacitor?
It decreases
What happens to the frequency of sound waves as they decrease?
Their velocity decreases
What is the formula for calculating kinetic energy?
$KE = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$
What is Ohm's Law in terms of the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance?
$V = IR$
What does the dot product of two vectors always result in?
A scalar
What happens to the frequency of radio waves as their frequency increases?
Their wavelength decreases
In the context of ideal gases, what happens to the volume occupied by one mole as temperature increases?
It increases
Which of the following membrane components is responsible for generating an immune response?
Glycolipids
What is the primary mechanism by which phospholipids move within a single leaflet of the cell membrane?
Lateral diffusion
Which membrane protein is responsible for moving phospholipids from the inner to the outer leaflet of the cell membrane in an ATP-dependent manner?
Floppase
Which type of receptor is responsible for detecting harmful stimuli, such as high temperature, sharp objects, and tissue damage?
Nociceptors
What is the primary function of Aquaporins in the cell membrane?
To allow water to move passively across the membrane
What is the typical charge of the cell's resting membrane potential?
Negative
Which type of receptor is responsible for detecting changes in blood pressure?
Baroreceptors
Which type of receptor is responsible for the sense of taste?
Gustatory chemoreceptors
What is the primary role of the oval window in the middle ear?
It allows vibrations to travel from the auditory ossicles to the inner ear.
Which of the following best describes the function of the tectorial membrane in the inner ear?
It transduces sound waves into electrical impulses.
What is the primary difference between the vestibular nerve and the cochlear nerve?
The vestibular nerve contributes to balance and orientation, while the cochlear nerve plays a role in hearing.
How do smooth muscle cells differ from skeletal muscle cells?
Smooth muscle cells are involuntary, while skeletal muscle cells are voluntary.
What is the primary function of calcium ions (Ca2+) in muscle contraction?
Ca2+ binds to troponin, causing tropomyosin to expose the myosin binding sites on actin.
Which of the following is a characteristic of the dichotic listening task?
It tests the individual's ability to focus on one sound source while ignoring another.
What is the primary role of the pinna (visible part of the outer ear)?
It helps amplify sound waves entering the auditory canal.
Which of the following best describes the function of the organ of Corti within the cochlea?
It contains the hair cells that convert sound waves into electrical impulses.
What kind of genetic changes are largely carried out through methylation and deacetylation?
Epigenetics
What process favors traits that increase an organism's chances of attracting a mate and reproducing?
Sexual selection
What type of selection involves females mating with males based on desirable appearances despite these traits not being inherently beneficial?
Fisherman selection
Which evolution process involves distantly related organisms independently evolving similar traits to adapt to similar needs?
Convergent evolution
What do exocrine glands release substances through onto body surfaces?
Ducts
What occurs when the presence of 2 alleles for a gene results in a blended phenotype?
Incomplete dominance
Which reversible genetic changes do not alter the DNA sequence?
Epigenetics
What is the process whereby organisms evolve similar traits independently to adapt to similar needs?
Convergent evolution
Which of the following is a characteristic of a positive feedback loop in biological systems?
It encourages deviation from the mean value
What is the relationship between the resting membrane potential and the opening of voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels?
At the resting membrane potential of -70mV, voltage-gated sodium channels are closed and voltage-gated potassium channels are open
What is the significance of the 'all-or-none' phenomenon in the generation of action potentials?
Suprathreshold stimuli of different magnitudes will produce action potentials of the same magnitude
How do myelin sheaths affect the propagation of action potentials along a neuron?
Myelin sheaths allow the action potential to take on a saltatory conduction
What is the effect of increased expression of NMDA receptors in the hippocampus?
It increases the likelihood of action potential formation and neuronal excitability
What is the role of phosphodiesterase in the cAMP signaling pathway?
Phosphodiesterase catalyzes the cleavage of cAMP to AMP, restoring the baseline level of cAMP
What is the purpose of temporal summation in the context of neuronal impulse transmission?
Temporal summation allows for the additive effects of impulses received at the same location on a neuron over time
What is the primary function of spatial summation in neuronal impulse transmission?
Spatial summation allows for the integration of impulses received at different locations on a neuron
What is the main function of Goblet cells in the respiratory tract?
Produce mucus
Which type of mutation involves the flipping of a chromosomal segment?
Inversion Mutation
What is the role of Myelin Sheath around axons?
Prevent signals loss by insulation
What is the primary function of Dendrites in a neuron?
Receive action potentials from other neurons
What process allows Action Potentials to travel quickly through axons?
Nodes of Ranvier formation
What is a characteristic of Beneficial mutations according to natural selection?
They accumulate over time in species
Which statement best describes Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium?
Genotype frequencies remain constant in evolving populations
What is the function of Pneumocytes II in the lungs?
Produce surfactant
Study Notes
Spectroscopy
- IR spectroscopy: measures absorbance of light at various wavelengths
- N-H stretch: 3300 cm^-1
- Alkyne C-H stretch: 3200-3400 cm^-1
- O-H stretch: 2850-3100 cm^-1
- C-H stretch: <3000 cm^-1
- C triple bond N: 2100-2260 cm^-1
- C=O: 1650-1800 cm^-1
- Fingerprint region: 500-1000 cm^-1
Organic Chemistry
- Isomerization: change from trans to cis
- Hydrolysis: addition of water to break bonds, adding OH group
- Dehydration: removal of water, creating a bond
- Decarboxylation: removal of carboxyl group, releasing CO2
- Reduction: addition of electrons, decreasing oxidation number
- Carboxylation: addition of CO2 to create a carboxyl group
Enzymes
- Inhibitors: decrease enzyme activity
- Km: substrate concentration at which enzyme is half-saturated
- Vmax: maximum reaction rate
- Uncompetitive inhibitors: bind to both enzyme and enzyme-substrate complex
- Noncompetitive inhibitors: bind to enzyme, but not substrate
- Mixed inhibitors: bind to enzyme and substrate, with unequal affinity
Cell Biology
- Mitosis: nuclear division, resulting in two identical daughter cells
- Meiosis: reduction division, resulting in four non-identical daughter cells
- Cell signaling: communication between cells through signals
- Gap junctions: allow for direct cell-to-cell communication
- Desmosomes: strengthen cell-cell connections
- Cadherins: Ca2+ dependent transmembrane glycoproteins, mediating cell-cell adhesion
Genetics
- Crossing over: exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes
- Independent assortment: random combination of alleles during gamete formation
- Genetic diversity: increased by crossing over, independent assortment, and random fertilization
Hormones
- Parathyroid hormone: increases blood Ca2+ levels
- Calcitonin: decreases blood Ca2+ levels
- Erythropoietin (EPO): stimulates RBC production in the bone marrow
- Oxytocin: stimulates milk ejection and uterine contractions
- Prolactin: stimulates milk production
Other
- Radiolabeling: using radioactive isotopes to track biological processes
- Ion-exchange chromatography: separates molecules based on charge
- Gel filtration chromatography: separates molecules based on size
- Electrophoresis: separates molecules based on charge and size### Cell Biology
- Tight junctions: prevent leakage of small molecules and ions between adjacent epithelial cells, prevent paracellular transport
- Hemidesmosomes: attach cells to the extracellular matrix
- Ribosomes: 60S (large) and 40S (small), 80S (eukaryotic) and 70S (prokaryotic)
- Ligases: bind two DNA fragments by phosphodiester bonds
- Primase: makes an RNA primer to match a fragment of DNA at the beginning of DNA replication
- Helicase: separates the parent DNA double helix at the replication fork
- Topoisomerase: relieves the overwinding of DNA strands ahead of the DNA replication fork by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands
Reflexes
- Babinski reflex: spreading of a baby's toes and lifting of the big toe when the baby's sole is stimulated
- Rooting reflex: baby's head movement towards an object that stimulates the mouth and cheeks
- Palmar grasp reflex: grasping response that occurs when a baby's palm is stimulated
- Moro reflex: exhibited by startled babies, characterized by extension and drawing in of the baby's arms and legs, throwing back of the head, and loud crying
Immunity
- Adaptive immunity: involves dendritic cells, immature B cells, and Langerhans cells
- Dendritic cells: specialized immune cells in the skin and mucous membranes
Cardiovascular System
- Pulmonary veins: undergo gas exchange in the lungs, resulting in the removal of CO2 and addition of O2 to the blood, carry O2 from the lungs to the left atrium
- Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation
- Lowest blood pressure: found in the pulmonary artery
- Carotid artery: carries oxygenated blood from the aorta to the head and neck
- Renal artery: carries oxygenated blood from the aorta to the kidneys
Respiratory System
- Inhalation: diaphragm contracts, increasing force, and Bernoulli's continuity equation states that volume flow rate stays the same
- Bernoulli's equation: if velocity increases, pressure must decrease
- P1 + 1/2pv^2 + pgh: equation for ideal fluids
Thermodynamics
- Zeroth law: explains that two systems are also in thermal equilibrium with one another if they are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system
- First law: energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system, change in U = Q - W
- Second law: total entropy of an isolated system cannot decrease over time
- Third law: as a system approaches absolute zero, its entropy will approach a constant
Physics
- Capacitance: C = Q/V, amount of charge stored per voltage
- Ohm's law: V = IR
- Power: P = mgh/t
- Work: W = Fd, work is done by = positive work, work is done on = negative work
- Ideal gas: 22.4 L/mol, heat capacity C = mc = q/ΔT
- Capacitors: C = C1 + C2 (in parallel), 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 (in series)
- Electric field: E = V - IR/L, measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge
- Dielectric: addition of dielectric decreases the effective electric field between the two plates, increasing capacitance
- Vectors: product of two vectors may be either a scalar or vector, depending on the exact operation
- Scalars: product of two scalars will always be a scalar
Biology
- Epigenetics: reversible genetic changes that do not alter the DNA sequence, changes are largely carried out through methylation and deacetylation, causing decrease or increase in transcription of a gene
- Incomplete dominance: occurs when the presence of two alleles for a gene results in a blended phenotype
- Co-dominance: white and black fur
- Convergent evolution: the process whereby distantly related organisms independently evolve similar traits to adapt to similar needs
- Sexual selection: favors traits that increase an organism's chances of attracting a mate and reproducing
- Kin selection: focuses on the role of genetic relatedness in the evolution of social behaviors
- Sulfolipids: play a role in photosynthesis and are only present in membranes of plants
- Vertical diffusion: movement of molecules from one leaflet to another in a cell membrane, less common
- Lateral diffusion: movement of molecules within a single leaflet of a lipid bilayer of a cell membrane, energetically favorable, does not require energy
- Flippases and floppases: move phospholipids in only a single direction, ATP-dependent
- Scramblases: ATP-independent, move phospholipids from the inner leaflet of a cell membrane to the outer leaflet of the membrane, while moving phospholipids from the outer to inner leaflet
Neuroscience
- Auditory transduction: the process in which the ear converts sound waves into electrical impulses that the brain can interpret
- Auditory canal: part of the outer ear, helps amplify sound
- Rhythm detection: occurs in the auditory cortex
- Vestibular system: contributes to balance and orientation, involves the vestibular nerve and cochlear nerve
- Inner ear: saccule, utricle, semi-circular canals, basilar membrane, and tectorial membrane
- Sound waves: move the outer ear, causing the tympanic membrane to vibrate, transmitting vibrations to the ossicles, which ultimately lead to the perception of sound
Muscle Physiology
- Smooth muscle: lines the walls of most blood vessels, spindle-shaped cells, centrally located nucleus, non-striated, uninucleate
- Skeletal muscle: striated, multi-nucleated
- Cardiac muscle: striated, uninucleated
- Function of Ca2+: binds to troponin, causing tropomyosin to exit the myosin binding site of actin, increasing muscle contraction
- Decrease in Ca2+ transport: directly into the blood, has high level of specificity
Test your knowledge of important terms related to chemical kinetics and equilibrium such as Kcat, rate constant K, Ksp, reaction quotient (Q), and Keq. Understand the significance of each term in determining the reaction rate and equilibrium state.
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