Chemical Families and Bonding Concepts

Chemical Families, Bonding, and Compounds

• Chemical families in the periodic table are groups of elements with similar chemical properties. Examples include alkali metals, alkali earth metals, halogens, and noble gases.
• Elements in the same group share a similar valence electron configuration, which affects their reactivity.
• Atoms are neutral, having an equal number of protons and electrons.
• Ions form when atoms gain or lose electrons, becoming positive (cations) or negative (anions).
• Ionic compounds (metal + non-metal) have high melting and boiling points and conduct electricity in solution.
• Covalent compounds (non-metal + non-metal) have lower melting points and poor electrical conductivity. They share electrons.
• The crisscross system is used to write formulas for ionic compounds (e.g., LiF).
• Multivalent elements like iron (Fe) have more than one possible charge in compounds.
• The prefix system is used for naming covalent compounds (e.g., CO₂).
• Polyatomic ions are groups of multiple atoms with a charge (e.g., NO₃⁻).
• Binary acids contain hydrogen and one other element (e.g., HCl).
• Oxyacids contain hydrogen and a polyatomic ion (e.g., H₂SO₄).
• Diatomic molecules are molecules consisting of two atoms bonded together (e.g., H₂, O₂, etc).

Equations and Types of Reactions

• Word equations describe chemical reactions using words.
• Skeleton equations use chemical formulas, but are not balanced.
• The Law of Conservation of Mass states that the mass of reactants equals the mass of products in a chemical reaction.
• Chemical equations must be balanced to satisfy the Law of Conservation of Mass.
• Synthesis reactions combine two or more substances to form one product (e.g., A + B → AB).
• Decomposition reactions break one substance into simpler products (e.g., AB → A + B).
• Single displacement reactions involve one element replacing another in a compound (e.g., A + BC → AC + B).
• Double displacement reactions involve the exchange of components between two compounds (e.g., AB + CD → AD + CB).
• Combustion reactions involve a substance reacting with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water (e.g., CₓHᵧ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O).

Acids, Bases, and pH

• Acids have a sour taste, react with metals, and turn blue litmus paper red.
• Bases have a bitter taste, a slippery feel, and turn red litmus paper blue.
• Binary acids use the prefix "hydro-" and "-ic acid" (e.g., HCl = hydrochloric acid).
• Oxyacids use the name of the polyatomic ion, changing "ate" to "-ic acid" or "ite" to "-ous acid" (e.g., H₂SO₄ = sulfuric acid).
• Bases are often hydroxides (e.g., NaOH = sodium hydroxide).
• The pH scale ranges from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic), with 7 being neutral.
• Litmus paper is an indicator that turns red in an acid and blue in a base.
• Neutralization reactions between an acid and a base produce water and a salt (e.g., HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O).

Light as an Electromagnetic Wave

• Light is an electromagnetic wave with both electric and magnetic components.
• Light does not require a medium to travel and travels through radiation.
• Wavelength is the distance between two points on a wave.
• Amplitude is the height of a wave from the undisturbed state.
• Period is the time it takes for a wavelength to travel.
• Frequency is the number of waves passing a point in a given time.
• Photons are particles of light that carry energy.
• Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that travel at 3.00 x 10⁸ m/s in a vacuum.
• Different electromagnetic waves have different wavelengths and applications (radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma ray).
• White light is a spectrum of colors.

Light Sources and Properties

• Luminous objects produce their own light, non-luminous objects do not.
• Light sources include incandescent, electric discharge, phosphorescent, fluorescent, chemiluminescent, bioluminescent, and triboluminescent.
• Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light from the flowing of an electric current.
• Lasers emit light at the same wavelength, producing a specific colour.

Reflection of Light

• Reflection is the bouncing of light off a surface.
• Plane mirrors reflect light following the laws of reflection.
• Incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane.
• Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection.
• Specular reflection (smooth surfaces) reflects light in one direction, diffuse reflection (rough surfaces) reflects light in many directions.
• The SALT method helps to describe properties of images (size, attitude, location and type).

Mirrors and Lenses

• Concave mirrors converge light; convex mirrors diverge light.
• Concave and convex mirrors have characteristic rays for image formation.
• Lenses (concave and convex) refract light; they converge or diverge light.
• Converging lenses form real and inverted images or virtual and upright images, depending on the object position.
• Diverging lenses form only virtual and upright images.
• Thin lens equations and magnification equations relate object and image distances to focal length and magnification.

Camera, Projector, and Magnifiers

• Cameras use converging lenses to project images onto film or a digital sensor.
• Movie projectors create large images from small films.
• Magnifying glasses use converging lenses to magnify small objects.
• Microscopes use multiple lenses to magnify tiny objects.
• Telescopes use lenses or mirrors to magnify distant objects.

Human Eye and Vision

• The human eye uses the cornea and lens to focus light onto the retina.
• The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye.
• Rods in the retina detect light and dark; cones detect colour.
• Accommodation lets the eye focus on different distances.
• Common vision problems include farsightedness (hyperopia), nearsightedness (myopia), and presbyopia.
• Vision problems can be corrected with eyeglasses or contact lenses.

Cell Theory and Prokaryotes/Eukaryotes

• Cell theory states that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and new cells only come from pre-existing cells.
• Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Cell Structure and Organelles

• Organelles are specialized structures within eukaryotic cells that perform specific functions.
• Cell membranes regulate what enters and exits the cell.
• Nuclei contain the cell's genetic material (DNA).
• Mitochondria produce energy for the cell.
• Ribosomes synthesise proteins.
• Endoplasmic reticulums (smooth and rough) synthesise and transport materials.
• Golgi apparatus processes and packages materials.
• Vacuoles store materials and remove wastes.
• Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis in plant cells.
• Cell walls provide support and protection for plant cells.

Cell Division

• Cell division is essential for growth, repair, and reproduction.
• Mitosis replicates chromosomes so that the daughter cells have identical DNA.
• Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and organelles into 2 new cells.
• The cell cycle has phases: Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis.

Cancer

• Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth due to DNA mutations.
• Cancers can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous and spreading).
• Factors can cause cancer such as genetic mutations and environmental factors.
• Detection methods for cancer include imaging and biopsies.
• Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and biophotonics.

Stem Cells and Specialization

• Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can differentiate into many types of cells.
• Stem cells can be totipotent, pluripotent, or multipotent, based on their differentiation capabilities.
• Stem cells can be used to treat injuries and diseases.

Animal Tissues and the Digestive System

• Tissues are collections of similar cells that perform a specific function.
• The digestive system breaks down and absorbs food.
• The digestive system includes organs like the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and accessory organs like the liver, pancreas and gallbladder.
• Digestion includes both mechanical (physical) and chemical processes (enzymes).
• Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine and waste is expelled.

Circulatory System

• The circulatory system transports materials, regulates body temperature, and protects against disease.
• Its components include the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood.
• Blood contains plasma, red blood cells (carry oxygen), white blood cells (fight infection), and platelets (blood clotting).
• The heart pumps blood through pulmonary and systemic circuits.

Respiratory System

• The respiratory system exchanges gases between the environment and the body.
• It consists of structures like the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
• Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli.
• Breathing involves the movement of the diaphragm and rib muscles to regulate air pressure.
• The respiratory system can be impacted by diseases like asthma, tuberculosis, and cancer.

Musculoskeletal System

• The musculoskeletal system provides support, protection, and movement.
• It consists of bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage, along with the exoskeletons in some animals.
• The system helps with various functions such as calcium storage, blood cell production, and protection of organs.

Nervous System

• The nervous system controls and coordinates body functions through electrical signals.
• It involves neurons and nerves, along with the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
• Neurons transmit signals to other neurons or muscles.

Plant Tissues

• Plants have various tissues (meristematic, dermal, vascular, and ground) that work together to support their functions.
• Meristematic tissue is responsible for plant growth.
• Dermal tissue provides protection.
• Vascular tissue transports water and nutrients.
• Ground tissue is involved in photosynthesis and storage.
• Plants have roots, stems, and leaves.

Plant Growth and Reproduction

• Plant growth depends on meristems, which are areas of dividing cells.
• Plant hormones including auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins, influence growth.
• Apical dominance and lateral meristems contribute to plant growth patterns.
• Asexual reproduction produces identical copies of the parent plant.
• Cryopreservation is used to preserve plant material using liquid nitrogen.