Chapter 2: Memory and the Brain Flashcards

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Questions and Answers

Who is Karl Lashley?

He began the search for the engram.

What is an engram?

The hypothetical physical unit of storage of a memory.

What did Karl Lashley suspect?

That there might be cells or groups of cells that transform when information has been acquired.

What did Karl Lashley find?

That there are no engrams, and that instead memory representation occurs because of a connection between disparate areas in the brain. Signup and view all the answers

What did Addis et al. show?

That visual areas of the brain are activated during autobiographical recall as well as more standard memory areas like the hippocampus. Signup and view all the answers

What do Quiroga's studies suggest?

There may have been engrams after all, because different areas of the brain were lit up when different celebrity names are said. Signup and view all the answers

What is Alzheimer's disease?

One of many dementia-type illnesses that are more common in older adults than in younger adults. Memory is the first deficit detected in this disease. Signup and view all the answers

Memory deficits are also a common symptom of what?

Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBIs). Signup and view all the answers

What's the biggest source of TBIs?

Motor vehicle crashes (17%). Signup and view all the answers

What is clinical psychology?

The practice of helping brain-damaged patients recover and cope with their injuries. Signup and view all the answers

What are neurons?

Biological cells that specialize in the transmission and retention of information. Signup and view all the answers

What do neurons allow us to do?

Move, see, think, and remember. Signup and view all the answers

What does the nucleus of the neuron house?

One set of the individual's chromosomes. Signup and view all the answers

What surrounds the nucleus?

Soma or cell body. Signup and view all the answers

What does the soma contain?

All the apparatuses that keep the cell working, such as mitochondria and other organelles. Signup and view all the answers

What do the fibers do?

Allow neurons to transmit info from one part of the brain or nervous system to another part. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of fibers?

One that leads into the neuron and one that leads out of the neuron. Signup and view all the answers

What is the dendrite?

The part of the neuron that receives information from other neurons. Signup and view all the answers

What is the axon?

The part of the neuron that sends information to other neurons. There is only one per neuron. Signup and view all the answers

What is an action potential?

The electrochemical process of transmission in an axon. Signup and view all the answers

The axon of one neuron does not actually touch the dendrite of the next neuron.

True (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the synapse?

Gaps between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of the next neuron, in which transmission occurs via neurotransmitters. Signup and view all the answers

The transfer of information between neurons occurs chemically, rather than electrically.

True (A) Signup and view all the answers

What are terminal buttons?

The ends of axons that hold neurotransmitters. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the electrical signal reaches the terminal buttons?

The signal triggers them to release neurotransmitters. Signup and view all the answers

How is the flow of information in the neurons?

Both electrical and chemical. Signup and view all the answers

What type of dendrites experience a greater loss of electrical power?

Longer dendrites as opposed to shorter dendrites. Signup and view all the answers

How is the transmission of information in the axon?

Electrochemical. Electrical over short segments then gets a power boost (action potential) via a chemical process as it moves down the axon. Signup and view all the answers

How fast does information flow in the axon?

Relatively slow (10 m per second). Signup and view all the answers

What is multiple sclerosis?

A disease that causes the loss of myelin along axons, resulting in movement deficits. Signup and view all the answers

What is the loss of movement and coordination in multiple sclerosis due to?

Due to the slowdown of information flowing through the axons. Signup and view all the answers

What specialized neurons do sensory systems have?

Receptor cells. Signup and view all the answers

What are neurotransmitters?

Proteins produced by the nervous system. Signup and view all the answers

How do you classify neurotransmitters?

To be classified as a neurotransmitter, the chemical must bridge the synapse and induce an electric current in a dendrite. Signup and view all the answers

What is the most commonly found neurotransmitter in the brain?

GABA. Signup and view all the answers

What kind of neurons use Acetylcholine?

Neurons that innervate and control our muscles. Signup and view all the answers

What makes Parkinson's Disease happen?

A part of the brain called the substantia nigra is no longer able to produce enough dopamine. Signup and view all the answers

What is the substantia nigra?

A part of the brain that produces dopamine. Signup and view all the answers

What are some symptoms of Parkinson's disease?

<ol> <li>Problems initiating movements 2) Frozen facial expressions 3) Tics which patient isn't aware of.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

How does ecstasy (MDMA) affect the brain?

Affects people's moods by modifying the release of serotonin at the synapse. Signup and view all the answers

What does cocaine do?

Blocks the flow of dopamine. Signup and view all the answers

What does Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) do?

It is a powerful hallucinogenic drug that affects both dopamine and serotonin channels. Signup and view all the answers

What does caffeine affect?

Causes the release of dopamine in our prefrontal cortex. Signup and view all the answers

What does nicotine do?

Increases the activation of the neurons that innervate our muscles. Signup and view all the answers

What is the left hemisphere focused on?

Language/ Language and Memory interaction. Signup and view all the answers

What is the right hemisphere heavily involved in?

<ol> <li>Spatial cognition 2) Greater role in the processing of music.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What are subcortical structures?

Structures below the surface of the brain, evolutionarily old areas of the brain that we share with many other animals. Signup and view all the answers

What is the thin top layer of the brain and what is it associated with?

The cerebral cortex, associated with higher cognitive and emotional functioning. Signup and view all the answers

What are the types of subcortical structures related to memory?

Hippocampus, Amygdala, Diencephalon. Signup and view all the answers

What is the hippocampus?

An area of the brain associated with learning and memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is the hippocampus a part of?

A network in the brain called the limbic system. Signup and view all the answers

Where is the limbic system/ hippocampus located?

In and below the medial temporal lobe (just behind your ear). Signup and view all the answers

How is the hippocampus?

Bilateral - there is one hippocampus on each side of the brain. Signup and view all the answers

Damage to the hippocampus can cause what?

Amnesia: memory deficits acquired through brain damage. Signup and view all the answers

What does data show in regards to the hippocampus?

Damage to the left hippocampus is more likely to affect memory for stories and words while damage to the right hemisphere will affect memory for directions and pictures. Signup and view all the answers

What is the amygdala and where is it?

A part of the brain critical in emotional learning, fear, and memory. It is also in the limbic system. Signup and view all the answers

What is the amygdala highly connected to?

The hippocampus, consistent with its role in memory, and the hypothalamus. Signup and view all the answers

What is the amygdala associated with?

Fear conditioning and emotional learning. Signup and view all the answers

What part of the brain includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus?

The Diencephalon. Signup and view all the answers

What is the hypothalamus?

An area of the brain associated with basic emotions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the thalamus?

An area of the brain heavily connected to other areas of the brain and serves as a routing center. Signup and view all the answers

With respect to memory, what does the diencephalon include?

Massive connections between the medial temporal lobes and hippocampus with the prefrontal lobes, which are involved in memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is the amnesic syndrome related to damage to the diencephalon?

Korsakoff's disease. Signup and view all the answers

What does Korsakoff's disease involve?

<ol> <li>Deficits in learning 2) Deficits in retrieving well-stored information 3) Impairment in the ability to distinguish between true and false memories.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What does the cerebral cortex consist of?

<ol> <li>Frontal lobe 2) Temporal lobe 3) Parietal lobe 4) Occipital lobe.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What are the cognitive function specialties for the frontal lobe?

<ol> <li>Higher emotion 2) Decision-making 3) Metacognition 4) Memory.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What is the prefrontal cortex?

The part of the frontal lobe most associated with higher emotions and source monitoring. Signup and view all the answers

What is source monitoring?

Being able to distinguish if a memory is a personally experienced event or something someone told you. Signup and view all the answers

What is the prefrontal lobe also associated with?

Metamemory and self-regulation of memory. Signup and view all the answers

What are the cognitive function specialties for the temporal lobe?

<ol> <li>Audition 2) Language 3) Memory.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What are the areas of the temporal lobe most involved in memory processing?

Those directly adjacent to the hippocampus - the medial temporal cortex. Signup and view all the answers

What is the medial temporal cortex involved in?

In the encoding of information into memory but not in the storage of representation of that information. Signup and view all the answers

What can damage to the medial temporal cortex cause?

Produces amnesia similar to that seen with hippocampus damage. Signup and view all the answers

What are the cognitive function specialties for the parietal lobe?

<ol> <li>Somatosensory (Various senses of touch) 2) Attention.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What are the cognitive function specialties for the occipital lobe?

<ol> <li>Vision.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What is V4?

An area of the brain in the occipital lobe involved in color processing. Signup and view all the answers

What is neuroimaging?

A set of techniques that allow researchers to make detailed maps of the human brain and assign functions to particular regions of the brain. Signup and view all the answers

What is the oldest of the neuroimaging techniques?

EEG (Electroencephalography). Signup and view all the answers

What is EEG technology based on?

The fact that neurons conduct electricity. Signup and view all the answers

The electrical activity of the brain can be measured every?

1/1,000TH of a second. Signup and view all the answers

What is EEG important for?

<ol> <li>Capturing sleep waves to tell the various stages of sleep 2) Diagnosis of epilepsy.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What is Intracranial EEG (electrocorticography)?

A type of EEG that measures brain activity when electrodes are placed directly on the surface of the brain. Signup and view all the answers

What are Event-related potentials (ERP)?

The averaged EEG pattern across many trials of EEG recordings in response to a particular class of stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is Magnetoencephalography (MEG)?

Using a magnetic sensor to detect small magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain. Signup and view all the answers

What does Positron Emission Tomography (PET) allow?

Allows scientists to get a detailed image of a living human brain without having to damage any living tissue. Signup and view all the answers

What can have potentially negative effects during a PET?

It involves injecting a small amount of radioactive substance into a person's blood. Signup and view all the answers

What is PET useful for?

<ol> <li>Medical purposes (pinpoint a tumor) 2) Research as it can isolate functional areas of the brain.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What does PET now allow for?

It does not allow for the detailed description of how information is changing over time in the brain because it requires 30 seconds of exposure to capture a good image. Signup and view all the answers

What is white matter (MRI)?

Axon connections. Signup and view all the answers

What is grey matter (MRI)?

Neuron cell bodies. Signup and view all the answers

What is MRI commonly used for?

<ol> <li>Examines structural damage in internal organs 2) Routinely used to detect tumors, growths, and other damage in the brain.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What is diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)?

Another MRI technique that compares the pattern of movement of molecules, particularly water, within tissues in order to derive structural images. Signup and view all the answers

What is DTI useful for?

<ol> <li>For examining white matter connections in the brain 2) In medical diagnosis, for example distinguishing Alzheimer's disease from other forms of dementia.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)?

A small magnetic pulse to create a small pulse of electricity, which temporarily changes function in a small area of the brain. Signup and view all the answers

One can infer what from TMS?

Causation from a disrupted area and not correlation. Signup and view all the answers

What is Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (DSC)?

Low current electricity is applied directly to the scalp in a continuous fashion. Signup and view all the answers

What are the medical applications for DSC?

<ol> <li>Improving cognitive performance after stroke 2) Alleviating depression 3) Reducing memory deficits in early Alzheimer's disease.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What is Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)?

A device is implanted directly into the brain, which then sends electrical impulses to specific regions of the brain; used exclusively implanted for medical reasons. Signup and view all the answers

What is DBS useful for?

<ol> <li>Alleviating symptoms of Parkinson's disease 2) Treating major affective disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and major depression.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What is Anterograde Amnesia?

An inability to form new memories following brain damage. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Memory and the Brain

Karl Lashley initiated "The search for the engram," exploring how memories are stored in the brain.
An engram represents a physical unit of memory storage, signifying changes in the brain to retain new information.
Lashley suspected the existence of specific cells that change when learning occurs, but concluded that memory representation instead arises from interconnections between various brain regions.
Addis et al. discovered that visual areas activate during autobiographical recall, alongside traditional memory areas like the hippocampus.
Research by Quiroga indicated potential engrams, as different brain areas activate with recognition of various celebrity names.

Alzheimer's Disease and Brain Injuries

Alzheimer's disease is a common form of dementia in older adults, with memory loss being the initial symptom.
Memory deficits are prevalent in individuals with Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBIs), primarily caused by motor vehicle crashes (17%).
Clinical psychology focuses on aiding recovery for brain-damaged patients.

Neurons and their Functions

Neurons are specialized biological cells dedicated to information transmission and retention.
They enable functions like movement, vision, thought, and memory.
The nucleus of a neuron contains chromosomes that hold DNA, surrounded by the soma or cell body that supports cellular functions.
Neurons possess fibers that transmit information; they include dendrites (receiving signals) and axons (sending signals).
Action potentials represent the electrochemical process for information transmission along axons.
Synapses are the gaps between neurons where neurotransmitters facilitate chemical communication, overcoming the non-contact nature of axon-dendrite connections.

Neurotransmitters and Their Effects

Neurotransmitters are proteins produced by the nervous system, classified by their ability to induce electric currents in dendrites.
GABA is the most prevalent neurotransmitter in the brain.
Acetylcholine is active in muscle control, while dopamine production issues in the substantia nigra lead to Parkinson's disease, characterized by motor difficulties.
Psychotropic substances like MDMA, cocaine, LSD, caffeine, and nicotine influence mood and brain activity by altering neurotransmitter release.

Brain Hemispheres and Structures

The left hemisphere is associated with language, whereas the right hemisphere focuses on spatial cognition and music processing.
The cerebral cortex, the brain's outer layer, handles higher cognitive functions, while subcortical structures like the hippocampus and amygdala play crucial roles in memory functions.
The hippocampus is essential for learning and memory, forming part of the limbic system located in the medial temporal lobe.

Damage and Memory

Damage to the hippocampus can cause amnesia, impairing memory functions differently depending on the affected hemisphere.
The amygdala is involved in emotional learning and fear conditioning, heavily connected to the hippocampus and hypothalamus.
The diencephalon encompasses the thalamus and hypothalamus, forming vital connections for memory processing.

Neuroimaging Techniques

Neuroimaging maps brain structures and functions using techniques like EEG, which captures electrical activity, critical for diagnosing sleep and epilepsy.
PET scans create detailed brain images but entail the use of a radioactive substance, suitable for isolating functional brain areas.
MRI assesses structural brain damage, while DTI examines white matter connections, assisting in diagnosing conditions like Alzheimer's disease.

Brain Stimulation Techniques

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) apply stimuli to change brain function, aiding in cognitive performance after strokes or alleviating depressive symptoms.
Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) involves implanted devices sending impulses to manage conditions like Parkinson's disease and major affective disorders.
Anterograde amnesia refers to the inability to form new memories following brain damage.

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