Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which component of the periodontium provides the necessary support for the teeth to maintain their functions?
Which component of the periodontium provides the necessary support for the teeth to maintain their functions?
- Periodontal ligament (correct)
- Gingiva
- Cementum
- Alveolar bone
What is the branch of science that investigates and treats the diseases and structures of the periodontium?
What is the branch of science that investigates and treats the diseases and structures of the periodontium?
- Orthodontics
- Periodontology (correct)
- Endodontics
- Prosthodontics
Which structure of the periodontium attaches the teeth to the surrounding alveolar bone and absorbs occlusal forces?
Which structure of the periodontium attaches the teeth to the surrounding alveolar bone and absorbs occlusal forces?
- Gingiva
- Alveolar bone
- Cementum
- Periodontal ligament (correct)
What does hypercementosis refer to in relation to the periodontium?
What does hypercementosis refer to in relation to the periodontium?
What is the main finding in gingivitis?
What is the main finding in gingivitis?
Which tissue is characterized by clinical attachment and bone loss in periodontitis?
Which tissue is characterized by clinical attachment and bone loss in periodontitis?
What defense mechanisms are involved in gingival antimicrobial defense?
What defense mechanisms are involved in gingival antimicrobial defense?
What is the color of cementum?
What is the color of cementum?
Where is cementum thickest in relation to the tooth?
Where is cementum thickest in relation to the tooth?
Which tissue creates an attachment environment for collagen fibers?
Which tissue creates an attachment environment for collagen fibers?
What is the primary component of the organic matrix of bone?
What is the primary component of the organic matrix of bone?
What process forms alveolar bone through differentiation of pluripotent follicle cells?
What process forms alveolar bone through differentiation of pluripotent follicle cells?
Which cells are involved in the resorption of bone?
Which cells are involved in the resorption of bone?
What plays a role in the development of the alveolar processes?
What plays a role in the development of the alveolar processes?
How does bone growth occur?
How does bone growth occur?
Which structure covers the outer layer of bone surfaces?
Which structure covers the outer layer of bone surfaces?
Which theory explains tooth movement as being controlled by fluid movements and where fibers have a secondary role?
Which theory explains tooth movement as being controlled by fluid movements and where fibers have a secondary role?
What part of the tooth sustains the major part of axial force when force is applied?
What part of the tooth sustains the major part of axial force when force is applied?
What cells undergo formative and remodeling function in response to physical forces in the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone?
What cells undergo formative and remodeling function in response to physical forces in the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone?
What does the high turnover rate of collagen and sulfated glycosaminoglycans in the periodontal ligament indicate?
What does the high turnover rate of collagen and sulfated glycosaminoglycans in the periodontal ligament indicate?
What is the primary function of periodontal ligament in terms of nutrient supply and drainage?
What is the primary function of periodontal ligament in terms of nutrient supply and drainage?
What is the primary function of bone in terms of supporting organs and enabling mobility?
What is the primary function of bone in terms of supporting organs and enabling mobility?
What type of structure does bone possess?
What type of structure does bone possess?
What composition best describes bone based on its material content?
What composition best describes bone based on its material content?
What does the periodontal ligament regulate to maintain constant dimensions throughout life?
What does the periodontal ligament regulate to maintain constant dimensions throughout life?
Which age group experiences the greatest increase in cementum thickness?
Which age group experiences the greatest increase in cementum thickness?
At what age does hypercementosis typically occur?
At what age does hypercementosis typically occur?
What is the radiographic appearance of hypercementosis?
What is the radiographic appearance of hypercementosis?
What factors can cause cementum resorption?
What factors can cause cementum resorption?
What is the proposed role of Malassez epithelial cell rests in cementum repair/regeneration?
What is the proposed role of Malassez epithelial cell rests in cementum repair/regeneration?
What is ankylosis in dental terms?
What is ankylosis in dental terms?
What are the physical functions of the periodontal ligament?
What are the physical functions of the periodontal ligament?
What differentiates hypercementosis from periapical cemental dysplasia radiographically?
What differentiates hypercementosis from periapical cemental dysplasia radiographically?
What causes excessive deposition of cementum?
What causes excessive deposition of cementum?
Which condition may cause hypercementosis?
Which condition may cause hypercementosis?
What factor is necessary for regeneration of cementum?
What factor is necessary for regeneration of cementum?
Which component of the periodontium is primarily responsible for providing an attachment environment for collagen fibers?
Which component of the periodontium is primarily responsible for providing an attachment environment for collagen fibers?
What is the primary function of the periodontal ligament in terms of supporting organs and enabling mobility?
What is the primary function of the periodontal ligament in terms of supporting organs and enabling mobility?
In which age group does hypercementosis typically occur?
In which age group does hypercementosis typically occur?
Which tissue is characterized by clinical attachment and bone loss in periodontitis?
Which tissue is characterized by clinical attachment and bone loss in periodontitis?
What factor is necessary for the regeneration of cementum?
What factor is necessary for the regeneration of cementum?
Which structure of the periodontium attaches the teeth to the surrounding alveolar bone and absorbs occlusal forces?
Which structure of the periodontium attaches the teeth to the surrounding alveolar bone and absorbs occlusal forces?
What is the reported average thickness of cementum at age 60?
What is the reported average thickness of cementum at age 60?
What is the primary cause of hypercementosis?
What is the primary cause of hypercementosis?
What cells are suggested to play a role in cementum repair/regeneration?
What cells are suggested to play a role in cementum repair/regeneration?
Which condition may occur with neoplastic and nonneoplastic conditions such as benign cementoblastoma and cementifying fibroma?
Which condition may occur with neoplastic and nonneoplastic conditions such as benign cementoblastoma and cementifying fibroma?
What is the radiographic appearance of hypercementosis?
What is the radiographic appearance of hypercementosis?
What is ankylosis in dental terms?
What is ankylosis in dental terms?
According to the tensional theory, what is the principal role of the periodontal ligament in tooth support and transmission of occlusal forces?
According to the tensional theory, what is the principal role of the periodontal ligament in tooth support and transmission of occlusal forces?
In the viscoelastic system theory, which component controls tooth movement through fluid movements?
In the viscoelastic system theory, which component controls tooth movement through fluid movements?
What is the primary function of bone in relation to supporting organs, producing blood cells, storing minerals, and enabling mobility?
What is the primary function of bone in relation to supporting organs, producing blood cells, storing minerals, and enabling mobility?
Which tissue is characterized by high turnover rate of collagen and sulfated glycosaminoglycans, nutrient supply, and lymphatic drainage?
Which tissue is characterized by high turnover rate of collagen and sulfated glycosaminoglycans, nutrient supply, and lymphatic drainage?
What differentiates bone from other tissues based on its complex internal and external structure, lightweight yet strong composition?
What differentiates bone from other tissues based on its complex internal and external structure, lightweight yet strong composition?
Which component plays a major role in tooth movement when force is applied, sustaining the axial force and causing displacement into the alveolus?
Which component plays a major role in tooth movement when force is applied, sustaining the axial force and causing displacement into the alveolus?
What is the primary component of the organic matrix of bone?
What is the primary component of the organic matrix of bone?
How does bone growth occur?
How does bone growth occur?
What factor plays a role in the development of the alveolar processes?
What factor plays a role in the development of the alveolar processes?
What is the proposed role of Malassez epithelial cell rests in cementum repair/regeneration?
What is the proposed role of Malassez epithelial cell rests in cementum repair/regeneration?
What does hypercementosis refer to in relation to the periodontium?
What does hypercementosis refer to in relation to the periodontium?
What type of structure does bone possess?
What type of structure does bone possess?
What is the primary function of gingival crevicular fluid?
What is the primary function of gingival crevicular fluid?
Which factor determines the color of gingiva?
Which factor determines the color of gingiva?
Where is the gingival groove located?
Where is the gingival groove located?
What is the primary function of saliva in gingival antimicrobial defense?
What is the primary function of saliva in gingival antimicrobial defense?
What is the main characteristic of cementum in relation to enamel and dentin?
What is the main characteristic of cementum in relation to enamel and dentin?
What determines the size and contour of the gingiva?
What determines the size and contour of the gingiva?
Which periodontal tissue is characterized by a continuous process of formation and is thickest in the apical third and furcation areas?
Which periodontal tissue is characterized by a continuous process of formation and is thickest in the apical third and furcation areas?
What is the primary function of the periodontal ligament in relation to supporting organs and enabling mobility?
What is the primary function of the periodontal ligament in relation to supporting organs and enabling mobility?
According to the text, what is the color of gingiva?
According to the text, what is the color of gingiva?
Which defense mechanisms are involved in gingival antimicrobial defense?
Which defense mechanisms are involved in gingival antimicrobial defense?
What is the reported average thickness of cementum at age 60?
What is the reported average thickness of cementum at age 60?
Which tissue is characterized by color variations from 'coral pink' to darker shades and is tightly bound to underlying bone?
Which tissue is characterized by color variations from 'coral pink' to darker shades and is tightly bound to underlying bone?
What is the function of the periodontal ligament in relation to the occlusal forces?
What is the function of the periodontal ligament in relation to the occlusal forces?
What is the primary organic composition of bone based on its material content?
What is the primary organic composition of bone based on its material content?
Which factor determines the color variations of the gingiva?
Which factor determines the color variations of the gingiva?
What is the radiographic appearance of hypercementosis?
What is the radiographic appearance of hypercementosis?
Which defense mechanisms are involved in gingival antimicrobial defense?
Which defense mechanisms are involved in gingival antimicrobial defense?
Which cells are suggested to play a role in cementum repair/regeneration?
Which cells are suggested to play a role in cementum repair/regeneration?
What is the radiographic appearance of hypercementosis?
What is the radiographic appearance of hypercementosis?
According to the tensional theory, what is the principal role of the periodontal ligament in tooth support and transmission of occlusal forces?
According to the tensional theory, what is the principal role of the periodontal ligament in tooth support and transmission of occlusal forces?
What causes excessive deposition of cementum?
What causes excessive deposition of cementum?
Which component of the periodontium provides the necessary support for the teeth to maintain their functions?
Which component of the periodontium provides the necessary support for the teeth to maintain their functions?
What is the primary function of saliva in gingival antimicrobial defense?
What is the primary function of saliva in gingival antimicrobial defense?
What is the main characteristic of cementum in relation to enamel and dentin?
What is the main characteristic of cementum in relation to enamel and dentin?
Which factor is necessary for regeneration of cementum?
Which factor is necessary for regeneration of cementum?
In the viscoelastic system theory, which component controls tooth movement through fluid movements?
In the viscoelastic system theory, which component controls tooth movement through fluid movements?
What factor plays a role in the development of the alveolar processes?
What factor plays a role in the development of the alveolar processes?
What differentiates bone from other tissues based on its complex internal and external structure, lightweight yet strong composition?
What differentiates bone from other tissues based on its complex internal and external structure, lightweight yet strong composition?
What differentiates bone from other tissues based on its complex internal and external structure, lightweight yet strong composition?
What differentiates bone from other tissues based on its complex internal and external structure, lightweight yet strong composition?
What is ankylosis in dental terms?
What is ankylosis in dental terms?
What is the primary function of paracrine factors in the development of alveolar processes?
What is the primary function of paracrine factors in the development of alveolar processes?
What is the main source of osteoclasts, which resorb bone?
What is the main source of osteoclasts, which resorb bone?
What is the process through which bone growth occurs?
What is the process through which bone growth occurs?
Which cell type produces the organic matrix of bone?
Which cell type produces the organic matrix of bone?
What is the function of endosteum in relation to bone surfaces?
What is the function of endosteum in relation to bone surfaces?
What characterizes the inner layer of the periosteum?
What characterizes the inner layer of the periosteum?
Which periodontal tissue is characterized by clinical attachment and bone loss in periodontitis?
Which periodontal tissue is characterized by clinical attachment and bone loss in periodontitis?
What is the proposed role of Malassez epithelial cell rests in cementum repair/regeneration?
What is the proposed role of Malassez epithelial cell rests in cementum repair/regeneration?
What differentiates bone from other tissues based on its complex internal and external structure, lightweight yet strong composition?
What differentiates bone from other tissues based on its complex internal and external structure, lightweight yet strong composition?
What factor plays a role in the development of the alveolar processes?
What factor plays a role in the development of the alveolar processes?
What is the radiographic appearance of hypercementosis?
What is the radiographic appearance of hypercementosis?
What is the primary function of bone in relation to supporting organs, producing blood cells, storing minerals, and enabling mobility?
What is the primary function of bone in relation to supporting organs, producing blood cells, storing minerals, and enabling mobility?
Which neurotransmitter is released by preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system to activate nicotinic receptors on postganglionic neurons?
Which neurotransmitter is released by preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system to activate nicotinic receptors on postganglionic neurons?
What type of drugs mimic the effects of the sympathetic nervous system neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine?
What type of drugs mimic the effects of the sympathetic nervous system neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine?
Which system is responsible for 'Rest and Digest' functions of the body?
Which system is responsible for 'Rest and Digest' functions of the body?
Where do postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system release norepinephrine to activate adrenergic receptors?
Where do postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system release norepinephrine to activate adrenergic receptors?
What is the primary function of adrenergic receptors?
What is the primary function of adrenergic receptors?
What is the main function of adrenergic drugs?
What is the main function of adrenergic drugs?
Which cholinergic blocking drug is used to treat vestibular disorders?
Which cholinergic blocking drug is used to treat vestibular disorders?
What effect does high drug levels have in the brain with cholinergic blocking drugs?
What effect does high drug levels have in the brain with cholinergic blocking drugs?
Which drug is administered pre-operatively to reduce GI and respiratory secretions, salivation, and prevent bradycardia during anesthesia?
Which drug is administered pre-operatively to reduce GI and respiratory secretions, salivation, and prevent bradycardia during anesthesia?
Which cholinergic blocking drug is used for the treatment of motion sickness and Parkinson's disease?
Which cholinergic blocking drug is used for the treatment of motion sickness and Parkinson's disease?
Which type of drug interaction/adverse reaction can occur with cholinergic blocking drugs?
Which type of drug interaction/adverse reaction can occur with cholinergic blocking drugs?
Which cholinergic blocking drug can lead to adverse effects such as dry mouth, blurred vision, and anhidrosis in an overdose?
Which cholinergic blocking drug can lead to adverse effects such as dry mouth, blurred vision, and anhidrosis in an overdose?
Which type of adrenergic receptor is primarily located on presynaptic nerve terminals?
Which type of adrenergic receptor is primarily located on presynaptic nerve terminals?
Which adrenergic receptor is primarily found in the smooth muscle of bronchioles, arterioles, and visceral organs?
Which adrenergic receptor is primarily found in the smooth muscle of bronchioles, arterioles, and visceral organs?
Which type of drug primarily stimulates dopaminergic receptors?
Which type of drug primarily stimulates dopaminergic receptors?
What is the primary therapeutic use of norepinephrine among the listed medications?
What is the primary therapeutic use of norepinephrine among the listed medications?
Which term best describes drugs that inhibit the actions of acetylcholine in the parasympathetic nervous system?
Which term best describes drugs that inhibit the actions of acetylcholine in the parasympathetic nervous system?
What is the primary effect of activation of beta receptors in heart cells?
What is the primary effect of activation of beta receptors in heart cells?
Which type of adrenergic blocking drug disrupts sympathetic nervous system function and is used to treat hypertension, congestive heart failure, and pheochromocytoma?
Which type of adrenergic blocking drug disrupts sympathetic nervous system function and is used to treat hypertension, congestive heart failure, and pheochromocytoma?
Which class of adrenergic blocking drugs acts at different receptor sites to produce effects such as increasing peripheral vasoconstriction?
Which class of adrenergic blocking drugs acts at different receptor sites to produce effects such as increasing peripheral vasoconstriction?
Which adrenergic blocking drug interrupts catecholamine actions and is used to relax smooth muscle and decrease blood pressure?
Which adrenergic blocking drug interrupts catecholamine actions and is used to relax smooth muscle and decrease blood pressure?
Which type of adrenergic drug stimulates dopaminergic receptors to improve kidney blood flow?
Which type of adrenergic drug stimulates dopaminergic receptors to improve kidney blood flow?
Which type of adrenergic drug has a short duration of action limiting therapeutic usefulness, and may cause serious drug interactions/adverse reactions including hypertension, arrhythmias, seizures, and hyperglycemia?
Which type of adrenergic drug has a short duration of action limiting therapeutic usefulness, and may cause serious drug interactions/adverse reactions including hypertension, arrhythmias, seizures, and hyperglycemia?
Which type of adrenergic drug acts on alpha receptors like ephedrine and phenylephrine to provide an antihypotensive effect?
Which type of adrenergic drug acts on alpha receptors like ephedrine and phenylephrine to provide an antihypotensive effect?
Which drugs are primarily used for heart conditions but can also cause severe bronchospasm?
Which drugs are primarily used for heart conditions but can also cause severe bronchospasm?
Which drugs mimic the action of acetylcholine and promote salivation, bradycardia, and bronchiolar contraction?
Which drugs mimic the action of acetylcholine and promote salivation, bradycardia, and bronchiolar contraction?
Which type of anticholinesterase drugs have short durations and are used to diagnose myasthenia gravis and treat Alzheimer's dementia?
Which type of anticholinesterase drugs have short durations and are used to diagnose myasthenia gravis and treat Alzheimer's dementia?
Which drugs interrupt parasympathetic nerve impulses and are absorbed from various routes, distributed widely, and metabolized by the liver?
Which drugs interrupt parasympathetic nerve impulses and are absorbed from various routes, distributed widely, and metabolized by the liver?
Which drugs block the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, extending the effects of acetylcholine, and are primarily used as toxic insecticides or nerve gas in chemical warfare?
Which drugs block the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, extending the effects of acetylcholine, and are primarily used as toxic insecticides or nerve gas in chemical warfare?
Which drugs are used to treat atonic bladder conditions, post-operative urinary retention, and glaucoma?
Which drugs are used to treat atonic bladder conditions, post-operative urinary retention, and glaucoma?
Study Notes
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Between the ages of 11 and 70, the average thickness of cementum increases threefold, with the greatest increase in the apical region.
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Reported average thicknesses: 95 µm at age 20 and 215 µm at age 60.
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Cementum abnormalities range from absence (cemental aplasia/hypoplasia) to excessive deposition (cemental hyperplasia/hypercementosis).
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Hypercementosis is an age-related phenomenon, affecting one tooth or entire dentition.
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Distinguishing between hypercementosis and normal cementum thickness can be challenging due to individual variation.
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Hypercementosis may occur with neoplastic and nonneoplastic conditions, such as benign cementoblastoma, cementifying fibroma, periapical cemental dysplasia, florid cemento-osseous dysplasia, and other benign fibro-osseous lesions.
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Radiographically, hypercementosis has a radiolucent shadow of the periodontal ligament and radiopaque lamina dura.
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Periapical cemental dysplasia, condensing osteitis, and focal periapical osteopetrosis are differentiated from hypercementosis due to their presence outside the ligament/lamina dura shadow.
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Causes of hypercementosis include orthodontic appliances, occlusal forces, tooth eruption, and periapical irritation.
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Cementum resorption occurs in erupted and unerupted teeth due to local or systemic factors, or idiopathically.
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Local factors include trauma, orthodontic movement, malaligned erupting teeth, cysts, tumors, teeth without functional antagonists, embedded teeth, and periapical/periodontal disease.
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Systemic factors include calcium deficiency, hypothyroidism, hereditary fibrous osteodystrophy, and Paget disease.
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Regeneration of cementum requires cementoblasts, but the origin and regulation of their recruitment and differentiation are not fully understood.
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Recent research suggests that Malassez epithelial cell rests may play a role in cementum repair/regeneration.
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Malassez rests may activate potential to secrete matrix proteins, such as amelogenins, enamelins, and sheath proteins.
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Several growth factors, including bone morphogenetic proteins, platelet-derived growth factor, insulin-like growth factor, and enamel matrix derivatives, have been shown to aid in cementum regeneration.
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Ankylosis is the fusion of cementum and the alveolar bone with obliteration of the periodontal ligament.
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Ankylosis occurs with cemental resorption, chronic periapical inflammation, tooth replantation, occlusal trauma, and around embedded teeth.
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Ankylosis is relatively uncommon and most frequently occurs in the primary dentition.
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The periodontal ligament is a complex vascular connective tissue surrounding the tooth root, connecting it to the alveolar bone.
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Physical functions: protects vessels/nerves, transmits occlusal forces, attaches teeth to bone, maintains gingival tissues, and resists impact/shock absorption.
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Two theories explain tooth support and transmission of occlusal forces: tensional theory and viscoelastic system theory
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Tensional theory: principal fibers of periodontal ligament transmit forces to bone, causing elastic deformation of bony socket
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Viscoelastic system theory: tooth movement controlled by fluid movements, fibers have secondary role
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When force is applied to tooth, oblique fibers sustain major part of axial force, while root tendencies to displace into alveolus
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Tooth movement consists of two phases: within periodontal ligament and producing displacement of bony plates
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Periodontal ligament and alveolar bone cells undergo formative and remodeling function in response to physical forces
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High turnover rate of collagen and sulfated glycosaminoglycans in periodontal ligament
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Periodontal ligament supplies nutrients and lymphatic drainage, highly vascularized tissue
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Nerve bundles transmit pain sensation and mechanoreception within ligament
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Periodontal ligament regulates width to maintain constant dimensions throughout life
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Bone: rigid organ supporting organs, producing blood cells, storing minerals, and enabling mobility
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Bone structure: complex internal and external structure, lightweight yet strong, hard and hard, composed of inorganic and organic matter.
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Periodontium anatomy and periodontal health introduction
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Periodontal health defined: no inflammatory periodontal disease or clinical inflammation
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Gingivitis: inflammatory lesion limited to the gingiva, colored "coral pink," interacts with dental plaque and host's immune-inflammatory response, main finding is gingival bleeding
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Periodontitis: progressive destruction of tooth-supporting tissues, characterized by clinical attachment and bone loss, periodontal pocket, and gingival bleeding
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Gingiva: color varies from "coral pink" to darker shades, size varies, contour and shape determined by teeth alignment, firm and resilient, tightly bound to underlying bone
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Gingival antimicrobial defense mechanisms: 1) Gingival epithelium, 2) Natural defense systems in the gingival groove, 3) Saliva, 4) Gingival crevicular fluid
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Cementum: calcified tissue covering the root, yellowish color, softer than enamel and dentin, creates an attachment environment for collagen fibers, continuous process of formation, thickest in apical third and furcation areas, thicker in distal surfaces than mesial surfaces.
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Periodontium anatomy and periodontal health introduction
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Periodontal health defined: no inflammatory periodontal disease or clinical inflammation
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Gingivitis: inflammatory lesion limited to the gingiva, colored "coral pink," interacts with dental plaque and host's immune-inflammatory response, main finding is gingival bleeding
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Periodontitis: progressive destruction of tooth-supporting tissues, characterized by clinical attachment and bone loss, periodontal pocket, and gingival bleeding
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Gingiva: color varies from "coral pink" to darker shades, size varies, contour and shape determined by teeth alignment, firm and resilient, tightly bound to underlying bone
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Gingival antimicrobial defense mechanisms: 1) Gingival epithelium, 2) Natural defense systems in the gingival groove, 3) Saliva, 4) Gingival crevicular fluid
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Cementum: calcified tissue covering the root, yellowish color, softer than enamel and dentin, creates an attachment environment for collagen fibers, continuous process of formation, thickest in apical third and furcation areas, thicker in distal surfaces than mesial surfaces.
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Beta1 and beta2-blockers have cardiac effects, but also constrict bronchioles in the lungs.
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Beta-Adrenergic Blockers are used primarily for heart conditions such as heart attacks, angina, hypertension, supraventricular arrhythmias, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. They also treat anxiety, thyrotoxicosis symptoms, essential tremor, migraines, open-angle glaucoma, and pheochromocytoma.
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Beta-Adrenergic Blockers can cause cardiac and respiratory depression, arrhythmia, severe bronchospasm, and severe hypotension as drug interactions/adverse reactions.
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The Parasympathetic System's drugs include cholinergics, anticholinergics, ganglionic blocking agents, neuromuscular blocking agents, and ganglionic stimulating agents.
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Cholinergic drugs, a subtype of parasympathetic drugs, promote the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and are divided into cholinergic agonists and anticholinesterase drugs.
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Cholinergic agonists mimic the action of acetylcholine, including bethanechol, carbachol, pilocarpine, and others. They have pharmacodynamic effects such as salivation, bradycardia, vasodilation, bronchiolar contraction, increased GI activity, increased bladder tone, and pupil constriction.
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Cholinergic agonists are used to treat atonic bladder conditions, post-operative and postpartum urinary retention, GI disorders, and glaucoma.
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Anticholinesterase drugs block the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, extending the effects of acetylcholine. They are divided into reversible and irreversible types.
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Reversible anticholinesterase drugs, such as donepezil and edrophonium, have short durations and are used therapeutically to reduce eye pressure, increase bladder tone, improve GI tone and peristalsis, promote muscular contraction, diagnose myasthenia gravis, and treat Alzheimer's dementia.
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Irreversible anticholinesterase drugs, including MALATION, PARATION, PARAOXON, ECOTHIOPHATE, ISOFLUROPHATE, are primarily used as toxic insecticides, pesticides, or nerve gas in chemical warfare, causing SLUDGE symptoms.
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Cholinergic blocking drugs, such as atropine, interrupt parasympathetic nerve impulses and are also anticholinergic drugs.
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Cholinergic blocking drugs are absorbed from various routes, distributed widely, cross the blood-brain barrier, have moderate protein-binding, are metabolized by the liver, and excreted by the kidneys.
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Description
Explore the changes in cementum thickness between ages 11 and 70 and the potential abnormalities that can occur. Understand how the average thickness increases and the range of abnormalities observed in cementum thickness.
