69 Questions
Define cellular adaptation.
Reversible functional and structural response to more severe physiologic stresses and some pathologic stimuli resulting in new but altered steady state.
What is hyperplasia?
Increase in the number of cells.
Explain hypertrophy.
Increase in the size of cells or organ.
Describe atrophy.
Decrease in size and metabolic activity.
What is metaplasia?
Replacement of adult cells by another adult cell type.
Explain physiologic hyperplasia.
Increased functional capacity of tissue for periodic requirements.
Give an example of pathologic hyperplasia.
Endometrial hyperplasia induced by hormone dysbalance.
What characterizes hypertrophy?
Enlargement of cells leading to increased organ size.
What are the organs responsible for blood oxygenation and possible compensation mechanisms?
Cardiovascular system, Respiratory system, Erythrocytes, Tissue metabolism
What is the fastest compensatory mechanism for respiratory acidosis?
Hyperventilation
How does hyperventilation relate to hypoxia?
Hypoxic stimulation leads to hyperventilation in an attempt to correct hypoxia at the expense of CO2 loss.
What can tachycardia lead to in terms of myocardial oxygen need?
Tachycardia raises myocardial need for oxygen, potentially leading to myocardial hypoxic injury.
In what condition does the Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system get activated?
Hypovolemia, for example, after blood loss.
What is the consequence of increased erythropoietin synthesis in the kidneys?
Secondary polycythemia
What does the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve describe?
The relationship between the saturation of hemoglobin and the partial pressure of arterial oxygen.
What effect does hyperventilation have on blood pH?
Hyperventilation can lead to respiratory alkalosis.
Define cyanosis.
Cyanosis is characterized by a bluish discoloration of the skin or mucous membranes.
What level of deoxygenated hemoglobin in the arteries is associated with central cyanosis?
Above 50 g/L.
In what conditions might cyanosis not be clinically evident in a patient with severe anemia?
Due to the inability to obtain a high enough level of reduced hemoglobin.
What is the difference between central and peripheral cyanosis?
Central cyanosis is related to arterial blood and reduced hemoglobin levels, while peripheral cyanosis is seen in extremities with slower blood flow.
What is a symptom of hypoxia that is subjective and involves difficulty breathing?
Dyspnea.
Name a congenital heart pathology associated with central cyanosis.
Tetralogy of Fallot.
What are some symptoms caused by compensatory mechanisms in response to hypoxia?
Fatigue, malaise, anxiety, confusion, insomnia.
What is another term for peripheral cyanosis seen in the upper and lower extremities?
Acral cyanosis.
What are the morphological signs of acute pulmonary congestion with pulmonary edema?
Tissues are red, full with fluid; veins and alveolar capillaries engorged with blood; erythrocyte extravasation may occur.
How does interstitial pulmonary edema differ from alveolar pulmonary edema?
Interstitial pulmonary edema may occur as fluid is pushed from the capillaries into the alveolar septae, while alveolar pulmonary edema may occur as fluid goes into alveoli from the alveolar septae.
What are the morphological signs of chronic pulmonary congestion?
Veins and capillaries are full-filled with blood; numerous intraalveolar haemosiderinladed macrophages are present; interstitial fibrosis can be observed.
What is the cause of blood congestion in the liver according to the scheme?
Right-sided heart failure.
What are the symptoms associated with blood congestion caused by right-sided heart failure?
Dilated jugular veins and ascites.
Describe the norm of peripheral edema according to the blood circulation scheme.
Peripheral edema.
What may occur in acute blood congestion in the lungs with pulmonary edema?
Erythrocyte extravasation.
What is the role of haemosiderinladed macrophages in chronic pulmonary congestion?
They are numerous intraalveolar cells known as s.heart-failure cells.
What is the significance of methemoglobinemia in relation to oxygen uptake?
metHb is unable to accept oxygen like the typical 2+ oxidation state, causing a leftward shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve.
How does carbon monoxide affect the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve?
Carbon monoxide binds hemoglobin ~250 times more rapidly than oxygen, reducing available binding spots and shifting the curve leftward.
What structural difference does fetal hemoglobin have compared to adult hemoglobin?
Fetal hemoglobin is adapted to have a higher affinity for oxygen.
What is the biological significance of inflammation?
Inflammation serves a protective role by defending against injurious agents and removing damaged tissue.
Give examples of conditions or diseases associated with inflammation.
Examples include pneumonia, ARVI, gut infections, hepatitis, and appendicitis.
How is inflammation connected to repair, regeneration, and healing?
Inflammation plays a role in the processes of repair, regeneration, and healing.
What are the two opposing aspects of the biological meaning of inflammation?
Inflammation can be protective (defending against tissue injury) or harmful (contributing to diseases like rheumatoid arthritis).
What are some consequences of inflammation when it becomes harmful?
Harmful inflammation can lead to conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, and life-threatening hypersensitivity reactions.
What is the hallmark sign of dystrophic calcification?
Abnormal deposition of calcium salts
Which condition is NOT associated with metastatic calcification?
Decreased parathyroid hormone (PTH) level
What organ is commonly affected by metastatic calcification?
Lung
What is the primary cause of cholestasis?
Accumulation of lipochrome
In cellular aging, what physiological changes are observed in almost all organs and systems?
Physiologic and structural alterations
What distinguishes metastatic calcification from dystrophic calcification?
Occurs in basic pH tissues
What is the main cause of histotoxic hypoxia?
Defect in cellular usage of oxygen
Which condition is characterized by cyanosis caused by cessation of aerobic cell metabolism?
Cyanide poisoning
How does cyanide poisoning affect cellular metabolism?
Blocks Krebs cycle enzymes
Which substance is known to block Krebs cycle enzymes?
Tetrachloromethane
In circulatory hypoxia, what initial blood parameter may be normal despite decreased oxygen delivery?
$PaO_2$
What leads to mixed hypoxia that includes both circulatory and respiratory components?
Shock
What is the basis of pathogenesis for Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC) syndrome?
Formation of many tiny, microscopic fibrin thrombi in microcirculation vessels
In which conditions can arterial thrombosis occur?
Atherosclerosis and deep vein thrombosis
What condition can lead to the formation of emboli from thrombi in the heart, aorta, and arteries causing brain or kidney damage?
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC) syndrome
Which clinical condition can be characterized by pain, edema with possible collaterals, and PATE?
Deep vein thrombosis
What is a potential consequence of clot formation in the heart in cases of bacterial endocarditis?
Formation of emboli leading to brain damage
What are the main morphological components of acute inflammation?
Exudation of fluid and plasma proteins, oedema, reaction/emigration of neutrophils
What causes increased vascular permeability in acute inflammation?
Formation of intercellular endothelial gaps
Which component is mainly observed in Helicobacter pylori gastritis?
Cellular infiltrate
What are the characteristics of chronic inflammation compared to acute inflammation?
Long-lasting and reactions of lymphocytes/macrophages
What are the etiological factors of acute inflammation?
Microbial toxins and tissue necrosis
What characterizes chronic inflammation with regards to leukocyte presence?
Accumulation of lymphocytes and macrophages
What is the pH range for transudate?
6.5-8.0
Which type of exudate involves the highest content of proteins?
Purulent
What is the primary factor that causes leukocytes emigration to the focus of inflammation?
Positive haemotaxis
According to the Law on leukocytes emigration, what is the sequence in which different types of leukocytes migrate to the focus of inflammation?
Granulocytes → monocyte → lymphocyte
What does 'Restitutio incompleta' refer to in terms of local inflammation?
Replacement of specific tissues by connective tissues and partial renewal of function
What is the mechanism provided by which leukocyte emigration is facilitated during inflammation?
Flow of exudates
Test your knowledge on the definitions of cellular adaptation reactions including hyperplasia, hypertrophy, atrophy, and metaplasia. Learn about the reversible functional and structural responses to various stimuli.
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