Cell Injury and Death
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Questions and Answers

What is the fundamental basis of all diseases?

  • Radiation exposure
  • Genetic mutations
  • Environmental toxins
  • Abnormal cellular function (correct)

    • What is the common underlying feature of all diseases?

  • Impaired cellular function (correct)
  • Environmental insults
  • Cellular structural defects
  • Genetic abnormalities

    • What is the result of environmental toxins on cellular function?

  • Impaired cellular structure
  • Enhanced cellular function
  • Increased cellular growth
  • Altered cellular function (correct)

    • What is the relationship between cellular function and disease?

    <p>Disease occurs when cellular function is impaired</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of radiation exposure on cellular structure?

    <p>Altered cellular structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of environmental insults in disease development?

    <p>Environmental insults contribute to disease development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between toxins and cellular function?

    <p>Toxins alter cellular function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the underlying cause of individual susceptibility to disease?

    <p>Impaired cellular function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two major pathways of cell death?

    <p>Necrosis and apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of exposure to a variety of injurious agents?

    <p>Cell injury or death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the site of protein synthesis and folding that is affected in endoplasmic reticulum stress?

    <p>Endoplasmic reticulum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the movement of water into a cell, resulting in swelling?

    <p>Oncosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the breakdown of cellular components, resulting in cell death?

    <p>Necrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the compression of capillaries, resulting in cell injury?

    <p>Ischemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the changes in cellular structure and function that occur in response to injury?

    <p>Cytological changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the swelling of organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, in response to injury?

    <p>Hydrops</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic microscopic finding in necrosis?

    <p>Basophilic calcium deposits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common cause of necrosis?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of injury can cause necrosis?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common immune response to necrosis?

    <p>Inflammatory response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can lead to the release of enzymes from cells in necrosis?

    <p>Cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where can necrosis occur?

    <p>Anywhere in the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of necrosis?

    <p>Inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can occur in response to necrosis?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of dry gangrene?

    <p>Presence of dead tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of damage to membrane lipids?

    <p>Disruption of lysosomal membranes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a superimposed bacterial infection?

    <p>Histoplasmosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of caseous necrosis?

    <p>Cheese-like appearance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of disruption of plasma membrane?

    <p>Disruption of cellular functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a disease caused by caseous necrosis?

    <p>Tuberculosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of necrosis of cellular membranes?

    <p>Disruption of cellular functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of an infection that can lead to necrosis?

    <p>Histoplasmosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of mechanisms of apoptosis?

    <p>To induce programmed cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main pathways of apoptosis?

    <p>Mitochondrial and death receptor pathways</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of BCL-2 in apoptosis?

    <p>It inhibits apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of BCL-2 in tumors?

    <p>It inhibits apoptosis in cancer cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of programmed cell death?

    <p>Apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the gene that regulates apoptosis?

    <p>BCL-2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do growth factors promote cell survival?

    <p>By inhibiting apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the pathway that involves the activation of death receptors?

    <p>Extrinsic pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their functions:

    <p>Cells = Basic structural and functional units of living organisms Organelles = Specialized structures within cells that perform specific functions Toxins = Substances that can harm or kill cells Environmental Insults = External factors that can damage cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Diseases = Abnormal cell function or structure Toxins = Substances that can harm or kill cells Environmental Insults = External factors that can damage cells Cellular Function = The normal functioning of cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their effects on cells:

    <p>Radiation Exposure = Damage to cellular structure and function Physical Trauma = Disruption of cellular membrane and function Toxins = Inhibition of cellular function and structure Cellular Stress = Disruption of cellular homeostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following factors with their impacts on cellular function:

    <p>Genetic Factors = Influence on cellular susceptibility to disease Environmental Factors = Exposure to toxins and insults Lifestyle Factors = Influence on cellular stress and function Nutritional Factors = Impact on cellular growth and maintenance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their triggers:

    <p>Cell Death = Inhibition of cellular function and structure Cellular Stress = Disruption of cellular homeostasis Inflammation = Response to tissue injury and infection Apoptosis = Programmed cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their consequences:

    <p>Mitosis = Cell division and growth Apoptosis = Programmed cell death and tissue remodeling Necrosis = Unprogrammed cell death and tissue injury Cellular Differentiation = Specialization of cell function and structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following factors with their influence on cellular structure:

    <p>Toxins = Damage to cellular membrane and organelles Radiation = Disruption of cellular DNA and function Physical Trauma = Disruption of cellular membrane and organelles Environmental Insults = Disruption of cellular function and structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their relationships to disease:

    <p>Cellular Function = Underlying basis of all diseases Toxins = Environmental factors that contribute to disease Environmental Insults = External factors that trigger disease Cellular Structure = Physical basis of cellular function and disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their descriptions:

    <p>Reversible injury = Can be corrected once the injurious agent is removed Irreversible injury = Leads to cell death and is usually caused by severe injury Cell swelling = The movement of water into a cell, resulting in swelling Cell death = The breakdown of cellular components, resulting in cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Necrosis = A type of cell death characterized by cellular swelling and rupture Apoptosis = A type of programmed cell death Endoplasmic reticulum stress = A site of protein synthesis and folding that is affected by injury Cellular adaptation = Changes in cellular structure and function that occur in response to injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular changes with their causes:

    <p>Cellular swelling = Influx of water into the cell Disruption of plasma membrane = Damage to membrane lipids Nuclear damage = Exposure to injurious agents such as radiation Endoplasmic reticulum swelling = Injury or stress to the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their consequences:

    <p>Apoptosis = Removal of damaged cells from the body Necrosis = Inflammation and immune response Cellular adaptation = Changes in cellular structure and function Cell death = Release of enzymes from cells and inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their descriptions:

    <p>Dry gangrene = A type of necrosis characterized by dry, blackened tissue Caseous necrosis = A type of necrosis characterized by cheese-like tissue Cellular stress = A response to injury or damage to the cell Cell injury = Damage to cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their effects:

    <p>Apoptosis = Removal of damaged cells from the body without inflammation Necrosis = Inflammation and immune response Cellular adaptation = Changes in cellular structure and function Cell death = Release of enzymes from cells and inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their effects on cells:

    <p>Radiation exposure = Damage to nuclear DNA Environmental toxins = Disruption of cellular function Injurious agents = Cell death or cellular adaptation Oxidative stress = Damage to cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular changes with their underlying causes:

    <p>Cellular adaptation = Response to injury or stress Cell death = Severe injury or damage to cellular components Necrosis = Disruption of plasma membrane Endoplasmic reticulum stress = Damage to protein synthesis and folding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their effects during cell injury:

    <p>Mitochondria = May contain amorphous densities visible by electron microscopy Endoplasmic Reticulum = May become dilated, with disassociation of polysomes Nucleus = May show clumping of chromatin structure Plasma membrane = May release myelin figures composed of phospholipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular changes with their corresponding cellular processes:

    <p>DNA damage and loss of cellular membrane integrity = Necrosis Disruption of plasma membrane and release of enzymes = Apoptosis Altered structure and function of plasma membrane = Cell injury Compression of capillaries = Ischemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following microscopic findings with their corresponding cellular processes:

    <p>Myelin figures = Cell injury Amorphous densities in mitochondria = Necrosis Clumping of chromatin structure = Apoptosis Dilated Endoplasmic Reticulum = Cell stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their effects on cellular function:

    <p>Necrosis = Loss of cellular function and release of enzymes Apoptosis = Programmed cell death with no inflammatory response Cell injury = Altered cellular function with potential for recovery Ischemia = Compression of capillaries leading to cell injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following organelles with their changes during cell injury:

    <p>Mitochondria = May swell Endoplasmic Reticulum = May become dilated Nucleus = May show altered chromatin structure Ribosomes = May disassociate from ER</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their effects on cellular structure:

    <p>Necrosis = Breakdown of cellular components and cell death Apoptosis = Programmed cell death with no change in cellular structure Cell injury = Altered cellular structure with potential for recovery Ischemia = Compression of capillaries leading to cell injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular changes with their corresponding cellular processes:

    <p>Altered structure and function of plasma membrane = Cell injury Disruption of plasma membrane and release of enzymes = Necrosis Programmed cell death with no inflammatory response = Apoptosis Compression of capillaries = Ischemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their effects on the immune response:

    <p>Necrosis = Release of enzymes and inflammatory response Apoptosis = No inflammatory response Cell injury = Potential for recovery and no inflammatory response Ischemia = Compression of capillaries leading to cell injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular structures with their responses to injury:

    <p>Morphology = More diffuse cytoplasmic eosinophilia Plasma membrane = Disruption leading to necrosis Endoplasmic reticulum = Swelling in response to injury Nucleus = No change in appearance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Necrosis = Programmed cell death Apoptosis = Unprogrammed cell death Dry gangrene = Death of tissue due to lack of blood supply Caseous necrosis = Cheese-like appearance of necrotic tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular changes with their causes:

    <p>Membrane damage = Briggs damage to blood vessels Cytoplasmic eosinophilia = Necrotic cell response Serum increase = Intracellular protein buildup Organelle swelling = Endoplasmic reticulum stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their consequences:

    <p>Necrosis = Release of enzymes from cells Apoptosis = Inflammation and immune response Membrane disruption = Cell death and lysis Protein synthesis disruption = Cellular dysfunction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular mechanisms with their effects:

    <p>Injury response = Changes in cellular structure and function Cellular stress = Activation of death receptors Protein folding disruption = Endoplasmic reticulum stress Cellular swelling = Osmotic imbalance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their examples:

    <p>Superimposed bacterial infection = Gas gangrene Caseous necrosis = Tuberculosis Dry gangrene = Diabetic foot ulcer Cellular injury = Radiation exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular changes with their appearances:

    <p>Necrotic cells = Amorphous appearance Apoptotic cells = Shrunken appearance Injured cells = Swollen appearance Stressed cells = Granular appearance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their roles:

    <p>BCL-2 = Regulation of apoptosis Growth factors = Promotion of cell survival Death receptors = Activation of apoptosis Proteins = Regulation of cellular function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their descriptions:

    <p>Apoptosis = Programmed cell death resulting in cellular breakdown and removal Necrosis = Unprogrammed cell death resulting in cellular swelling and rupture Endoplasmic reticulum stress = Disruption of protein synthesis and folding leading to cellular injury Caspase activation = Enzymatic cascade leading to cellular breakdown and death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular structures with their functions:

    <p>Mitochondria = Site of energy production and cell signaling Endoplasmic reticulum = Site of protein synthesis and folding Cytosol = Site of cellular metabolism and protein breakdown Nucleus = Site of DNA storage and gene regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their triggers:

    <p>Apoptosis = DNA damage or oxidative stress Necrosis = Toxic insults or radiation exposure Inflammation = Infection or tissue injury Autophagy = Nutrient deprivation or cellular stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular changes with their consequences:

    <p>Plasma membrane disruption = Cell lysis and release of enzymes Endoplasmic reticulum swelling = Disruption of protein synthesis and folding Mitochondrial permeability = Release of cytochrome c and activation of caspases Cytoskeletal breakdown = Cell shrinkage and loss of cellular structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their functions in apoptosis:

    <p>Caspase-9 = Enzyme that cleaves and activates other caspases Cytochrome c = Protein that triggers caspase activation BCL-2 = Protein that inhibits apoptosis by regulating mitochondrial permeability Death receptors = Transmembrane proteins that activate caspases upon ligand binding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their outcomes:

    <p>Apoptosis = Orderly removal of cellular debris Necrosis = Inflammation and tissue injury Autophagy = Recycling of cellular components for energy production Cell proliferation = Increased cell number and tissue growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular reactions with their triggers:

    <p>Oxidative stress = Free radical production and lipid peroxidation Inflammation = Immune response to tissue injury or infection ER stress = Disruption of protein synthesis and folding Cellular hypoxia = Reduced oxygen availability and energy crisis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular changes with their consequences in disease:

    <p>Mitochondrial dysfunction = Neurodegenerative diseases and cancer ER stress = Neurodegenerative diseases and cancer Inflammation = Chronic diseases and cancer Apoptosis dysregulation = Cancer and autoimmune disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cells can adapt to stress, but never die.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Environmental toxins can trigger an immune response.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cell injury can be caused by genetic abnormalities.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cells can repair damaged DNA.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cell injury can lead to cell death.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Inflammation can cause cell injury.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cellular responses to injury are always reversible.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Environmental insults can trigger an immune response against self-antigens.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fat necrosis results in the release of activated pancreatic lipases into the bloodstream.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Receptors expressed by macrophages and other cell types recognize and respond to necrotic cell debris.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Necrosis typically results in the release of enzymes from cells.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pancreatic lipases are normally confined within pancreatic cells and only released upon cellular injury.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Necrosis is typically a reversible process.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Necrotic cells are typically intact and functional.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Caseous necrosis is a type of necrosis typically seen in bacterial infections.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Dry gangrene is a type of necrosis characterized by moist, soft tissue.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apoptosis can occur as a pathological event even when cells are not damaged.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Physiological apoptosis occurs during development of organisms, such as replacing premature tissues with mature tissues.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cell death can occur through only one pathway.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apoptosis is a form of cellular suicide that eliminates cells that are no longer needed or are damaged beyond repair, eliciting an inflammatory response.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Damage to cellular DNA or proteins can trigger apoptosis.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Coagulative necrosis is a form of cellular suicide.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Necrosis always occurs as a result of apoptosis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Necrosis can occur in response to various injurious agents, including environmental toxins and radiation exposure.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apoptosis can occur in response to immune responses.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apoptosis and necrosis are two forms of cellular injury that always involve an inflammatory response.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Liquefactive necrosis occurs in the brain as a result of apoptosis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Programmed cell death can occur in response to cellular stress.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Karyorrhexis is a type of apoptosis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pyknosis is a characteristic microscopic finding in apoptosis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Enzymes such as amylase are released from cells in necrosis.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apoptosis is a mechanism that eliminates cells that are no longer needed or are damaged, and it does not activate an immune response.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The opening of the membrane permeability transition pore leads to decreased mitochondrial membrane permeability.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Caspase-9 is activated in the cytosol, where it initiates the caspase cascade.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Environmental toxins can cause damage to nuclear structures and lead to cell death.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apoptosis is a mechanism of cell death that is characterized by cell swelling and inflammation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The endoplasmic reticulum is a site of protein synthesis and folding that is affected in endoplasmic reticulum stress.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Necrosis is a form of programmed cell death that is characterized by cell membrane disruption.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The release of enzymes from cells is a characteristic of apoptosis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apoptosis can occur in response to cellular stress, such as DNA damage or oxidative stress.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of cell injury caused by hypoxia and ischemia?

    <p>Deprivation of oxygen and nutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of endoplasmic reticulum stress in cell injury?

    <p>Disruption of protein synthesis and folding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of apoptosis that distinguishes it from necrosis?

    <p>Programmed cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of oxidative stress on cellular components?

    <p>Damage to DNA, proteins, and lipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the accumulation of abnormal protein aggregates in cells?

    <p>Pathologic accumulations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of cellular adaptations in response to stress?

    <p>Protection against cell injury and death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of DNA damage on cellular function?

    <p>Activation of cellular stress responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of cellular aging?

    <p>Cellular senescence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of the leakage of lysosomal enzymes in cell death?

    <p>It creates a cheesy consistency on gross examination.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in cell death?

    <p>They are released from dead cells and trigger an immune response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the source of ATP in necrosis?

    <p>Damaged mitochondria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the necrotic focus on microscopy?

    <p>It is a collection of fragmented cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the release of uric acid in necrosis?

    <p>It can lead to the formation of a granuloma.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the disruption of plasma membrane in necrosis?

    <p>It leads to the release of enzymes and other cellular components.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of ATP in the context of necrosis?

    <p>It is released from damaged mitochondria and contributes to the inflammatory response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of eosinophilic necrosis?

    <p>It is characterized by an amorphous granular pink appearance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of cellular injury caused by genetic abnormalities, mutations, and chromosomal abnormalities?

    <p>Accumulation of damaged DNA or abnormal proteins, leading to cellular dysfunction or death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cells respond to stress, and what are the possible outcomes?

    <p>Cells may adapt, be injured reversibly, or be irreversibly damaged and die.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of immune responses in cell injury?

    <p>Immune responses can cause cell injury, especially in autoimmune diseases and allergic reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common underlying mechanism of cell injury and death?

    <p>Damage to cellular components, leading to dysfunction or death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between environmental toxins and cellular function?

    <p>Environmental toxins can disrupt cellular function, leading to injury or death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of cellular injury, and how does it relate to disease?

    <p>Cellular injury can lead to disease, and understanding the mechanisms of cell injury is crucial for understanding disease development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of inflammation in cell injury?

    <p>Inflammation can cause cell injury, especially in chronic conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cellular responses to injury impact disease development?

    <p>Cellular responses to injury can contribute to disease development, and understanding these responses is crucial for developing effective treatments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of reversible cell injury?

    <p>Functional and structural changes in cells that are not permanent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do adaptations enable cells to do?

    <p>Cope with stresses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of cellular responses to injury?

    <p>Changes in cellular structure and function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common underlying feature of all diseases?

    <p>Cell injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of adaptations in cellular responses to injury?

    <p>Enable cells to cope with stresses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of reversible cell injury?

    <p>Cells can recover and return to normal function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three broad categories of cell injury?

    <p>Reversible cell injury, irreversible cell injury, and cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of cellular adaptations to stress?

    <p>Increased muscle mass</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of coagulative necrosis?

    <p>It is a type of necrosis where the tissue architecture is preserved.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of an immune response in necrosis?

    <p>It can lead to the removal of dead cells and tissue repair.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the release of enzymes from cells in necrosis?

    <p>It can cause damage to adjacent cells and tissue.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common underlying feature of necrosis and apoptosis?

    <p>Both are forms of cell death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of lipid peroxidation on cellular membranes?

    <p>It can cause damage to the membrane structure and function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of gangrenous necrosis?

    <p>It is a type of necrosis that involves the death of tissue due to a lack of blood supply.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of exotoxins and endotoxins in cellular injury?

    <p>They can cause damage to cellular membranes and disrupt cellular function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of cellular injury that leads to necrosis?

    <p>It is called oncosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis se caracteriza por la muerte de ______ celular.

    <p>tejido</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La gangrena seca es un tipo de necrosis que se caracteriza por la presencia de ______ tejido muerto.

    <p>tejido</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La membrana plasmática es un tipo de membrana que se puede dañar debido a la ______ de membrana lipídica.

    <p>disrupción</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis caseosa se asocia con la ______ tuberculosis.

    <p>tuberculosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis puede ocurrir debido a la ______ de membranas celulares, lo que conduce a la liberación de enzimas.

    <p>disrupción</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La infección bacteriana superpuesta puede ser una causa de ______ gangrena.

    <p>húmeda</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis puede ser causada por la ______ de toxinas ambientales en la función celular.

    <p>exposición</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis puede ocurrir en respuesta a la ______ de injurias, como la exposición a radiación.

    <p>acción</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La liberación de enzimas ______ causa daños en la célula.

    <p>lisosomales</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Elicroscópicamente, el foco necrótico se caracteriza por una ______ de células.

    <p>coleccion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La respuesta inflamatoria local se activa en respuesta a la liberación de ______ de las células muertas.

    <p>contenidos</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis se caracteriza por la ______ de células y la liberación de enzimas.

    <p>destrucción</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La ______ de células puede llevar a la formación de un granuloma.

    <p>muerte</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La lesión asociada con la liberación de ATP y ácido úrico se conoce como ______.

    <p>DAMPs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis puede ser causada por la ______ de células debido a la lesión del miocardio.

    <p>destrucción</p> Signup and view all the answers

    El examen microscópico de la necrosis often shows una ______ de células.

    <p>coleccion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis puede ocurrir en áreas del ______ y del tejido adiposo.

    <p>pancreas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Los receptores se expresan en macrófagos y ______ células.

    <p>otros</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La ______ es una característica microscópica común en la necrosis.

    <p>desintegración</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La liberación de enzimas de las células se puede deber a la ______ de las células pancreáticas.

    <p>activación</p> Signup and view all the answers

    El ______ es un ejemplo de infección bacteriana que puede llevar a la necrosis.

    <p>gangreno</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis puede ocurrir en respuesta a la ______ de células pancreáticas.

    <p>destrucción</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La ______ es un tipo de necrosis seca caracterizada por la formación de una masa seca y quebradiza.

    <p>gangrena</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La ______ es un tipo de necrosis caracterizada por la formación de una masa caseosa.

    <p>necrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis grasa se caracteriza por la formación de jabón cálcico en sitios de ______ de lípidos.

    <p>degradación</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La lesión celular irreversible se conoce como ______.

    <p>necrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La Figura 1.2 muestra cambios morfológicos en ______ celular reversible y irreversible.

    <p>lesión</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La lesión celular puede ser causada por la exposición a agentes lesivos, como ______.

    <p>toxinas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis puede ocurrir en cualquier parte del cuerpo, incluyendo el ______.

    <p>mesenterio</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La ______ de células puede llevar a la liberación de enzimas y la muerte celular.

    <p>necrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La respuesta inmune común a la necrosis es la ______.

    <p>inflamación</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La consecuencia de la necrosis puede ser la ______ de tejido.

    <p>pérdida</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis caseosa se caracteriza por una área grande de ______ amarillo-blanco

    <p>debris</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La activación de proteínas proapoptóticas puede ser causada por ______ de DNA

    <p>daño</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis caseosa se asocia con infecciones, especialmente ______ virales

    <p>certain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La muerte de células infectadas se produce mediante la activación de ______ por parte de linfocitos T citotóxicos

    <p>caspases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    El estrés del retículo endoplásmico puede causar la acumulación de ______ plegados incorrectamente

    <p>proteínas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La activación de la vía mitocondrial puede ser directa mediante la activación de ______ por proteínas virales

    <p>caspases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La necrosis caseosa se caracteriza por una zona de ______ con un contenido amarillo-blanco

    <p>necrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    La activación de receptores de muerte puede ser causada por ______ de citotoxicidad

    <p>proteínas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Cell Injury and Death

    • Cell injury and death can occur due to various insults, including toxins, radiation, and physical trauma, leading to diseases.
    • Environmental toxins, some therapeutic agents, and abnormal cellular processes can cause cell injury and death.

    Mechanisms of Cell Injury

    • Cell injury can occur through multiple mechanisms, including:
      • Disruption of cellular membranes, including plasma membrane and lysosomal membranes.
      • Activation of phospholipases, leading to damage to membrane lipids.
      • Disruption of cellular ion balance, leading to changes in cellular function.
      • Inhibition of cellular metabolism, leading to energy depletion.

    Types of Cell Death

    • There are two major types of cell death:
      • Necrosis: characterized by cell swelling, membrane rupture, and release of cellular contents.
      • Apoptosis: characterized by cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, and formation of apoptotic bodies.

    Causes of Necrosis

    • Necrosis can occur due to various causes, including:
      • Ischemia (reduced blood flow)
      • Infection (bacterial, viral, or fungal)
      • Toxins (environmental or therapeutic)
      • Physical trauma (mechanical injury)
      • Radiation
      • Genetic mutations

    Mechanisms of Apoptosis

    • Apoptosis can occur through two pathways:
      • Mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway: initiated by mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to release of cytochrome c and activation of caspases.
      • Death receptor (extrinsic) pathway: initiated by binding of ligands to death receptors, leading to activation of caspases.

    Regulation of Apoptosis

    • Apoptosis is regulated by various molecules, including:
      • BCL-2 family proteins: anti-apoptotic proteins that regulate mitochondrial permeability.
      • Caspases: enzymes that cleave cellular proteins, leading to apoptosis.
      • Death receptors: transmembrane proteins that initiate apoptosis in response to ligand binding.

    Importance of Apoptosis

    • Apoptosis is essential for maintaining tissue homeostasis, as it eliminates damaged or unwanted cells.
    • Dysregulation of apoptosis has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and autoimmune disorders.

    Cell Injury and Death

    • Cellular injury can be caused by various factors, including environmental toxins, physical trauma, radiation exposure, and infections.
    • The major cellular adaptations and physiological responses to injury are summarized at the end of the chapter.

    Cellular Injury

    • Cellular injury can result in reversible or irreversible damage to cells.
    • Reversible cell injury can be corrected by removing the injurious agent, and the cell can recover its normal structure and function.
    • Irreversible cell injury can lead to cell death, which can be divided into two types: necrosis and apoptosis.

    Necrosis

    • Necrosis is a type of cell death characterized by cellular swelling, rupture of the plasma membrane, and release of cellular contents.
    • It is often accompanied by inflammation and can lead to tissue damage.
    • Necrosis can be caused by various factors, including toxins, radiation, and physical trauma.

    Apoptosis

    • Apoptosis is a type of cell death characterized by cellular shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, and the formation of apoptotic bodies.
    • It is a programmed cell death that occurs naturally in various physiological processes, such as embryonic development and tissue homeostasis.
    • Apoptosis can be triggered by various stimuli, including DNA damage, oxidative stress, and withdrawal of growth factors.

    Cellular Responses to Injury

    • Cellular injury can trigger various responses, including:
      • Inflammation: a response to tissue damage characterized by the activation of immune cells and the release of inflammatory mediators.
      • Oxidative stress: an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species and the body's ability to detoxify them.
      • DNA damage: damage to the genetic material of the cell, which can trigger various responses, including apoptosis.
      • Cellular adaptation: changes in cellular structure and function to compensate for the injury.

    Cellular Components and Injury

    • Plasma membrane damage: a critical component of cellular injury, which can lead to cell death.
    • Mitochondrial damage: mitochondria are critical for cellular energy production, and damage to them can lead to cellular injury and death.
    • Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress: the ER is responsible for protein synthesis and folding, and stress on the ER can lead to cellular injury and death.
    • Nuclear damage: damage to the genetic material of the cell, which can trigger various responses, including apoptosis.

    Cell Death and Disease

    • Cell death can contribute to various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular disease.
    • Apoptosis can be dysregulated in cancer, leading to the formation of tumors.
    • Necrosis can lead to tissue damage and organ failure in various diseases, including cardiovascular disease and neurodegenerative disorders.

    Overview of Cell Injury

    • Cell injury can result from various factors, including genetic abnormalities, mutations, and environmental agents.

    Types of Cell Injury

    • Reversible cell injury: cells can adapt to stress, recover, or be injured reversibly, often by triggering inflammation.
    • Irreversible cell injury: cells can be damaged beyond repair, leading to cell death.

    Causes of Cell Injury

    • Genetic abnormalities, mutations, and environmental agents can cause cell injury.
    • Immune responses, such as autoimmune diseases or allergies, can also lead to cell injury.

    Consequences of Cell Injury

    • Cell injury can lead to cell death, either through necrosis or apoptosis.
    • Necrosis: a form of cell death that results in the release of cellular components, leading to an inflammatory response.
    • Apoptosis: a form of programmed cell death that eliminates damaged or unwanted cells without eliciting an inflammatory response.

    Apoptosis

    • Apoptosis is a form of cellular suicide that eliminates cells that are damaged beyond repair or no longer needed.
    • It occurs during development, when old cells are replaced by mature cells, and during immune responses, when damaged cells are eliminated.
    • Apoptosis can also occur in response to DNA damage or protein misfolding.

    Necrosis

    • Necrosis is a form of cell death that results from severe cell injury, often due to environmental toxins, infections, or inflammation.
    • It leads to the release of cellular components, causing an inflammatory response.

    Pathological Consequences of Cell Injury

    • Cell injury can lead to various diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders.
    • Apoptosis and necrosis can both contribute to disease progression, depending on the context.

    Cellular Response to Injury

    • Cells respond to injury by activating signaling pathways that trigger repair or death.
    • The response depends on the severity and type of injury, as well as the cellular context.

    Regulation of Cell Death

    • Cell death is regulated by a balance between pro-death and anti-death signals.
    • The Bcl-2 protein family plays a key role in regulating apoptosis.

    Molecular Mechanisms of Apoptosis

    • Apoptosis involves the activation of caspases, which are enzymes that break down cellular components.
    • The Bcl-2 protein family regulates the activation of caspases.
    • Cytochrome c release from the mitochondria can trigger apoptosis.

    Importance of Cell Death

    • Cell death is essential for development, tissue homeostasis, and the elimination of damaged or unwanted cells.
    • Apoptosis helps to maintain tissue integrity and prevent disease.

    Cell Injury and Death

    • Cell injury can be reversible or irreversible, and can lead to cell death if not repaired or corrected.
    • Causes of cell injury include genetic abnormalities, oxidative stress, hypoxia, ischemia, toxin-mediated injury, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress.
    • Cellular adaptations to stress can occur, including increased muscle mass in response to increased workload.

    Reversible Cell Injury

    • Characterized by functional and structural changes in cells that are not permanent.
    • Can be caused by factors such as increased muscle mass, leakage of lysosomal enzymes, and local inflammation.
    • Examples of reversible cell injury include increased muscle mass in response to increased workload, and leakage of lysosomal enzymes.

    Cell Death

    • Can occur through various pathways, including necrosis, apoptosis, and other mechanisms.
    • Necrosis is characterized by the breakdown of dead tissue, leading to a cheesy consistency on gross examination.
    • Microscopically, necrotic cells appear as a collection of fragmented or lysed cells with an amorphous granular pink appearance.

    Necrosis

    • Causes of necrosis include ischemia, exposure to toxins, and other forms of cellular injury.
    • Fibrinoid necrosis is a characteristic microscopic finding seen in immune reactions.
    • Examples of necrosis include pancreatitis, where enzymes leak out of cells and injure adjacent tissues.

    Apoptosis

    • A type of programmed cell death that occurs in response to various stimuli, including DNA damage and oxidative stress.
    • Characterized by cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, and the formation of apoptotic bodies.

    Other Pathways of Cell Death

    • Include autophagic cell death, where cells recycle their own components in response to stress, and mitotic catastrophe, where cells die during mitosis due to DNA damage.
    • Other mechanisms of cell death include cellular senescence, where cells become quiescent and resistant to apoptosis, and pyroptosis, where cells die due to the formation of pores in the cell membrane.

    Mechanisms of Cell Injury and Death

    • Include oxidative stress, where cells are damaged due to the presence of reactive oxygen species, and ER stress, where cells are damaged due to the accumulation of misfolded proteins.
    • Other mechanisms of cell injury and death include DNA damage, where cells are damaged due to the presence of damaged DNA, and hypoxia, where cells are damaged due to a lack of oxygen.

    Cellular Adaptations to Stress

    • Include changes in cellular metabolism, such as increased glucose uptake, and changes in cellular structure, such as increased muscle mass.
    • Other adaptations to stress include the activation of cellular defense mechanisms, such as the production of antioxidants and heat shock proteins.

    Pathologic Accumulations in Cells

    • Include the accumulation of damaged DNA, misfolded proteins, and other abnormal cellular components.
    • Examples of pathologic accumulations include the accumulation of beta-amyloid peptides in Alzheimer's disease, and the accumulation of alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease.

    Cell Injury and Cell Death

    • Necrosis is a type of cell death characterized by the release of intracellular contents, leading to inflammation and tissue damage.
    • Types of necrosis:
      • Dry gangrene: characterized by dead tissue that is dry and shrunk, often due to ischemia or lack of blood supply.
      • Wet gangrene: characterized by dead tissue that is soft and moist, often due to bacterial infection.
      • Caseous necrosis: characterized by dead tissue that is cheesy and soft, often due to tuberculosis.
      • Fat necrosis: characterized by dead tissue that is fatty and soft, often due to pancreatitis.

    Characteristics of Necrosis

    • Dissolution of cell membranes, leading to the release of cellular contents.
    • Leakage of lysosomal enzymes, leading to digestion of cellular components.
    • Local inflammation in response to the release of cellular contents.
    • Microscopically, necrotic cells appear as a collection of fragmented cells with an amorphous granular pink appearance (eosinophilic).

    Molecular Mechanisms of Necrosis

    • Release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), including ATP, uric acid, and DNA, which stimulate an immune response.
    • Activation of pro-inflammatory pathways, leading to the recruitment of immune cells and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
    • Inhibition of anti-inflammatory pathways, leading to the exacerbation of inflammation.

    Morphologic Changes in Cell Injury

    • Reversible cell injury: characterized by surface blebs, increased eosinophilia, and swelling of occasional cells.
    • Irreversible cell injury (necrosis): characterized by the loss of nuclei, fragmentation of cells, and leakage of cellular contents.

    Examples of Necrosis

    • Tuberculosis: characterized by caseous necrosis, often in the lung.
    • Pancreatitis: characterized by fat necrosis, often in the pancreas.
    • Ischemic injury: characterized by dry gangrene, often due to lack of blood supply.

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    Cell injury and death can occur due to various insults, including toxins, radiation, and physical trauma, leading to diseases. Explore the mechanisms of cell injury and its causes.

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