Bio 6 Lecture Final Practice Test
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Questions and Answers

What are homologous chromosomes?

  • Chromosomes that are always identical in size and shape
  • Chromosomes that have different genetic makeup only
  • Chromosomes that are identical from the same parent
  • Chromosomes from different parents that have the same genes (correct)

    • During interphase, chromosomes are visible under a microscope.

    False

    What is the primary function of the centrosomes during mitosis?

    To generate spindle fibers.

    The process of DNA replication occurs during the ______ phase of the cell cycle.

    <p>Synthesis (S)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following stages of the cell cycle with their descriptions:

    <p>G1 = Cell growth and organelle duplication S = DNA replication G2 = Preparation for mitosis Mitosis = Division of the nucleus and cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what phase do chromatids attach to centromeres?

    <p>Synthesis (S)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells are produced through meiosis?

    <p>Gametes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sister chromatids are formed during the G1 phase of the cell cycle.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of meiosis?

    <p>To produce four non-identical haploid cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Crossing over occurs during Anaphase I.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of spindle fibers during cell division?

    <p>Spindle fibers help separate and pull chromatids or chromosomes apart during cell division.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Somatic cells are any cells in the body that are not involved in __________.

    <p>reproduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of animal reproduction with their descriptions:

    <p>Budding = Used by sponges, hydra, corals Fission = Used by flatworms, amoeba Fragmentation = Used by annelid worms, starfish Parthenogenesis = Unfertilized egg develops into offspring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids split and move towards opposite poles?

    <p>Anaphase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The metaphase plate is where chromosomes line up during telophase.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes telophase in cell division?

    <p>Distinct nuclei form at opposite poles, and the chromosomes become chromatin again.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ is the central part of a chromosome that holds sister chromatids together.

    <p>centromere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the phase of meiosis with its description:

    <p>Metaphase I = Chromosomes line up in tetrads at the metaphase plate Anaphase II = Sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles Prophase II = Nuclear envelope breaks down again Telophase I = Results in 2 non-identical haploid cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process where homologous chromosomes pair up during meiosis?

    <p>Synapsis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All gametes are diploid cells.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of centrosomes during cell division?

    <p>Centrosomes organize microtubules and help pull chromatids apart during division.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During __________, two identical cells are produced from one parent cell.

    <p>mitosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Haploid = Cells with one set of chromosomes Diploid = Cells with two sets of chromosomes Meiosis = Cell division for gamete production Mitosis = Cell division for growth and repair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of sperm entering a secondary oocyte during ovulation?

    <p>Fusion of genetic material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The phenotype is the genetic makeup of an organism.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process turns a zygote into a blastula?

    <p>Cleavage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Mendel's experiments, the F2 generation showed a phenotypic ratio of _____ purple to white flowers.

    <p>3:1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the protective envelope created during the cortical reaction?

    <p>Fertilization envelope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Dominant alleles do not influence an organism's appearance if present with a recessive allele.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Mendel's law of segregation state?

    <p>The two alleles for a trait segregate during gamete formation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A gene that has multiple phenotypic effects is an example of _____ inheritance.

    <p>pleiotropy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of a Punnett square?

    <p>To predict the possible genotypes of offspring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Incomplete dominance results in phenotypes that are simply a mix of parental traits.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are polygenic traits?

    <p>Traits influenced by multiple genes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _____ refers to the location of a gene on a chromosome.

    <p>gene locus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of the addition rule in genetics?

    <p>To calculate probabilities of separate events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following processes with their descriptions:

    <p>Gastrulation = Process of forming the gut Cleavage = Rapid cell division of the zygote Organogenesis = Formation of organ systems Fertilization = Fusion of sperm and egg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sex chromosomes are typically present in females?

    <p>XX</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Males only need two copies of a recessive trait to express it.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of Down syndrome?

    <p>Trisomy 21</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The condition where an organism has an abnormal number of chromosomes is known as ______.

    <p>aneuploidy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following chromosomal abnormalities with their descriptions:

    <p>Turner Syndrome = Monosomy X Klinefelter Syndrome = XXY Trisomy X = XXX XYY Syndrome = XYY males</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role did Thomas Morgan play in genetics?

    <p>He studied inheritance using fruit flies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Linked genes are less likely to be inherited together compared to genes that are far apart on the same chromosome.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is hemizygous?

    <p>Having only one copy of a gene or chromosome segment instead of the usual two.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A person who carries a genetic mutation but does not express the associated condition is known as a ______.

    <p>carrier</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following scientists with their contributions to genetics:

    <p>Fredrick Griffith = Discovery of transformation in bacteria Avery, McCarty &amp; MacLeod = Identified DNA as the transforming agent Hershey &amp; Chase = Demonstrated DNA as genetic material using bacteriophages Watson and Crick = Discovered the double helix structure of DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common symptom of Turner Syndrome?

    <p>Short stature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of DNA polymerase in DNA replication?

    <p>To make new daughter strands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chromosomal alterations can include deletions and duplications.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The leading strand is synthesized in pieces known as Okazaki fragments.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is trisomy?

    <p>Having one too many chromosomes in a pair.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The wild type notation for red eyes in fruit flies is ______.

    <p>w+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main components involved in protein synthesis?

    <p>mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During transcription, RNA polymerase synthesizes RNA from a _____ template.

    <p>DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following enzymes with their functions:

    <p>Helicase = Unwinds the DNA strands Primase = Creates RNA primers Topoisomerase = Prevents supercoiling Ligase = Seals gaps in DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the start codon for protein synthesis?

    <p>AUG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In eukaryotes, transcription and translation occur simultaneously in the nucleus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of RNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes?

    <p>mRNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Okazaki fragments are characteristic of the _____ strand during DNA replication.

    <p>lagging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following processes with their respective definitions:

    <p>Transcription = Copying DNA to RNA Translation = Synthesizing proteins from RNA Post-transcriptional modification = Editing mRNA before translation Mutation = Change in an organism's DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about mRNA is correct?

    <p>mRNA is a copy of a single gene.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    DNA mutations can have large impacts on an organism's traits.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one type of mutation and describe it briefly.

    <p>Substitution - swapping one nucleotide for another.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The half-life of human mRNA is approximately _____ hours.

    <p>10</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes homologous chromosomes?

    <p>They are of the same size and shape but may have different alleles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of centromeres during mitosis?

    <p>They hold sister chromatids together until they are separated.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In __________, a single cell divides to produce two genetically identical daughter cells.

    <p>mitosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following phases of the cell cycle with their primary purposes:

    <p>G1 = Cell growth and organelle duplication S = DNA replication G2 = Preparation for mitosis Mitosis = Division of the cell into two daughter cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sister chromatids are different from homologous chromosomes.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are gametes and how do they differ from somatic cells?

    <p>Gametes are reproductive cells produced through meiosis and are haploid, while somatic cells are diploid and make up most of the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is produced at the end of meiosis?

    <p>4 non-identical haploid cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sister chromatids are separated during anaphase I of meiosis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cell division do somatic cells primarily undergo?

    <p>mitosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of homologous chromosomes pairing up is known as __________.

    <p>synapsis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the sex chromosomes for typical females?

    <p>XX</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following stages of mitosis with their descriptions:

    <p>Prophase = Chromatin condenses into chromosomes Metaphase = Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Anaphase = Sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles Telophase = Nuclear envelope reforms around separated chromosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All genes are located on the X and Y chromosomes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes crossing over?

    <p>Homologs exchange genetic material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during meiosis?

    <p>nondisjunction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Meiosis results in identical daughter cells.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Klinefelter syndrome is characterized by the presence of an extra ______ chromosome in males.

    <p>X</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the chromosomal alterations with their definitions:

    <p>deletion = removal of a segment duplication = repeating a segment inversion = reversing a segment translocation = nonhomologous chromosomes swap sections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the centrosome during cell division?

    <p>Organizes microtubules and helps pull chromatids apart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During _________________, chromosomes line up double stacked in homologous pairs.

    <p>metaphase I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which syndrome is characterized by a person with one X chromosome?

    <p>Turner Syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs after the sperm enters the secondary oocyte?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals with Turner Syndrome are typically male.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The acrosomal reaction occurs after the fertilization envelope is formed.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary genetic material that transmits traits between bacteria?

    <p>DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of asexual reproduction?

    <p>Budding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Independent assortment refers to the random distribution of chromosomes during gamete formation.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the hollow sphere of cells formed during embryonic development?

    <p>blastula</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The wild type for fruit fly eye color is _____ eyes.

    <p>red</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Mendel's experiments, the P generation consisted of _____ plants.

    <p>true breeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common outcome of trisomy 21?

    <p>Down Syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of spermatogenesis?

    <p>Four haploid sperm cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The X chromosome can contain dominant or recessive genes.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During telophase II, we end up with __________ cells.

    <p>4 haploid non-identical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of fertilization involves the male depositing sperm inside the female's reproductive tract?

    <p>Internal fertilization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the scientist that studied Drosophila melanogaster to understand inheritance patterns?

    <p>Thomas Morgan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Mendel's law of independent assortment state?

    <p>Each pair of alleles segregates independently</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An individual requires one copy of a recessive allele for it to be expressed.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ is the genetic condition resulting from deletion on chromosome 5.

    <p>cri du chat syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following syndromes with their genetic characteristics:

    <p>Klinefelter Syndrome = XXY Turner's Syndrome = X0 Trisomy X = XXX XYY Syndrome = XYY</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common phenotypic ratio observed in Mendel's F2 generation for single-trait crosses?

    <p>3:1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process where one gene affects the expression of another gene is called ______.

    <p>epistasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of dominance with their definitions:

    <p>incomplete dominance = When the phenotype is a mix of parental traits codominance = When both alleles are expressed equally pleiotropy = One gene affects multiple traits polygenic inheritance = Multiple genes influence one trait</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of the sperm acrosomal reaction?

    <p>Breakdown of the egg's protective coat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Polygenic inheritance means that multiple genes influence multiple traits.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of alleles are represented by uppercase letters?

    <p>dominant alleles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The central part of a chromosome that holds sister chromatids together is called the ______.

    <p>centromere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the observable expression of genes in an individual?

    <p>Phenotype</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first enzyme involved in DNA replication that unwinds the DNA strands?

    <p>Helicase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The leading strand of DNA is formed continuously.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of RNA polymerase in transcription?

    <p>To make a copy of DNA in the form of RNA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ are the sequences in mRNA that actually code for proteins.

    <p>exons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following sequences signals the start of protein synthesis?

    <p>AUG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mutations can have no impact or a significant impact on an organism's DNA.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is unique about the process of transcription in prokaryotes compared to eukaryotes?

    <p>Transcription and translation occur simultaneously in prokaryotes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The enzyme that seals gaps between Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand is called ______.

    <p>ligase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the enzyme to its function in the DNA replication process.

    <p>Helicase = Unwinds the DNA strands Topoisomerase = Prevents supercoiling Primase = Lays down RNA primers DNA Polymerase = Synthesizes the new DNA strands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure begins the process of replication?

    <p>Ori</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The codon sequence in RNA is made up of three nucleotides that correspond to an amino acid.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the stop codons in the genetic code?

    <p>UAA, UAG, UGA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of mutation involves swapping one nucleotide for another?

    <p>Substitution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the elongation phase of translation, ______ brings in amino acids to the ribosome.

    <p>tRNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the editing step that occurs between transcription and translation in eukaryotes?

    <p>Post-transcriptional modification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Cell Cycle & Mitosis

    • Chromatin: DNA wrapped around histone proteins
    • Sister chromatids: Two identical copies of a chromosome in a dividing cell
    • Homologous chromosomes (homologs): Chromosomes of the same size and shape from different parents, carrying the same genes but potentially different alleles
    • Haploid (1n): Half the number of chromosomes (gametes)
    • Diploid (2n): Full number of chromosomes (somatic cells)

    Interphase

    • Centrosomes/centrioles: Present, produce spindle fibers
    • Chromatin: Loose, not visible
    • Nuclear envelope: Intact
    • G1 (Gap 1): Cell growth, organelle duplication, chromosome building blocks, centromere production, energy storage
    • S (Synthesis): DNA replication (2 sister chromatids), attached to centromeres, centrosome duplication
    • G2 (Gap 2): Energy storage, organelle duplication, protein synthesis for chromosome manipulation, cytoskeleton disassembly
    • Result of interphase: 2 copies of DNA, organelles, stored energy, ready proteins

    Mitosis

    • Purpose: Cell division in embryos, fetuses, juveniles, and to replace cells in adults
    • Daughter cells: Genetically identical to the parent cell
    • External control: Hormones or growth factors stimulate cell division, binding to receptors, relaying signals
    • Centromere: Bond holding sister chromatids
    • Gametes: Reproductive cells (haploid), created via meiosis.
    • Zygote: Single fused cell (diploid)
    • Cleavage: Cell division in animal cells

    Mitosis Phases

    • Prophase: Centrosome duplication and movement, spindle fiber formation, chromatin condensation
    • Prometaphase: Spindle fibers attach to centromeres, chromosome shortening and thickening
    • Metaphase: Metaphase plate formation, chromosomes line up at metaphase plate, attached to spindle fibers
    • Anaphase: Sister chromatids split and move to opposite poles, becoming daughter chromosomes
    • Telophase: Chromosomes arrive at poles, become chromatin again, spindle disappears, two daughter nuclei form
    • Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm division, creating 2 daughter cells

    Meiosis

    • Purpose: Produce 4 non-identical haploid cells (gametes)
    • Occurs: After G2 phase and before M phase
    • Genetic mixing/recombination: Increases DNA variety in future offspring
    • Somatic cells: Non-reproductive cells, divide only by mitosis
    • Gametes: Reproductive cells (haploid)
    • Nuclear envelope: Double membrane enclosing the nucleus, separating genetic material from cytoplasm
    • Centrosome: Organelle organizing microtubules, involved in chromosome separation
    • Centrioles: Tiny structures within the centrosome
    • Spindle fibers: Protein structures separating genetic material during cell division
    • Synapsis: Pairing of homologous chromosomes
    • Tetrad: Set of 4 chromatids
    • Crossing over: Genetic recombination
    • Metaphase plate: Imaginary line where chromosomes align during metaphase I and II
    • Centromere: Central section binding sister chromatids
    • Kinetochore: Proteins within centromere holding chromosomes together

    Meiosis I

    • Prophase I: Chromatin condenses; nuclear envelope, homologous chromosomes synapse (tetrads), crossing over
    • Metaphase I: Tetrads align at metaphase plate, spindle microtubules attach, independent assortment
    • Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes separated to opposite sides
    • Telophase I: Chromosomes move towards poles, cell begins to divide, 2 non-identical haploid cells
    • Prophase II: Nuclear envelope dissolves, new spindle fibers form, centrosomes move to poles
    • Metaphase II: Chromosomes (single file) align at metaphase plate, spindle fibers attach
    • Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate, pulled to opposite poles
    • Telophase II: Distinct nuclei form, 4 haploid non-identical cells

    Animal Reproduction

    • Asexual: No fusion of gametes, usually mitosis, e.g., budding, fission, fragmentation, parthenogenesis
    • Sexual: Fusion of sperm and egg, involves fertilization (sperm + egg → zygote), meiosis & fertilization, traditional (1F, 1M), sex reversal, hermaphroditism
    • Internal fertilization: Male deposits sperm inside/near female reproductive tract
    • External fertilization: Female & male deposit gametes into water
    • Chemical signals: Hormones (communicate within individual), pheromones (communicate between individuals).

    Gametogenesis

    • Male: Spermatogonial stem cell (2n) → Spermatogonium (2n)→ Primary spermatocyte(2n) → Secondary spermatocyte(1n) → Early spermatid(1n) → Sperm cell(1n)
    • Female: Oogonium (2n) → Primary oocyte (2n) (arrested in meiosis I)→ Secondary oocyte (1n) plus polar body(1n) →Fertilized egg (zygote) (2n)- arrested in metaphase II until fertilization

    Embryonic Development

    • Fertilization: Forms zygote
    • Cleavage: Zygote → Blastula (hollow sphere)
    • Gastrulation: Blastula → Gastrula (blastopore, digestive tract formation)
    • Organogenesis: Organs begin to form

    Mendel & Genetics

    • Gene: Segment of DNA coding for a protein
    • Genome: All an organisms genes
    • Allele: Alternative versions of a gene
    • Gene locus: Particular gene location on a chromosome
    • Trait: Variant of a character (e.g., blue eyes)
    • Character: Heritable feature varying among individuals
    • Phenotype: Observable trait determined by gene combinations
    • Gregor Mendel: Father of genetics, studied pea plants
    • True-breeding plants: Bred only for one trait, P generation.
    • F1 generation: Offspring of P generation cross, dominant expressed
    • F2 generation: Offspring from F1 cross, 3:1 ratio (dominant: recessive)
    • Mendel's Model: Alleles, homologous chromosomes, dominance/recessiveness, law of segregation (alleles separate), and independent assortment (different genes independent).

    Punnett Squares

    • Diagram predicting offspring genotypes
    • Used with more than one trait, calculate probabilities (addition/multiplication rules), determine heterozygous likelihood

    Incomplete Dominance & Codominance

    • Incomplete dominance: Phenotype intermediate between dominant alleles.
    • Codominance: Both dominant alleles expressed.

    Pleiotropy & Polygenic Inheritance

    • Pleiotropy: One gene → multiple traits.
    • Polygenic inheritance: Multiple genes → one trait.

    Epistasis

    • Epistasis: One gene effects expression of another gene

    Sex-linked Traits & Sex Chromosomes

    • Sex chromosomes: X and Y
    • XX: Female; XY: Male
    • X-linked genes: Dominant/recessive
    • Hemizygous: Having only one copy of a gene (common for males & Y chromosome genes)
    • Carrier: Person carrying a genetic difference without expressing it
    • Thomas Morgan: Studied Drosophila melanogaster (fruit flies) to understand inheritance
    • Wild type: Most common trait observed in nature

    Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

    • Genes on chromosomes, their behavior during meiosis explains inheritance
    • Linked genes: Genes closer on same chromosome more likely to be inherited together.
    • Gene distance related to recombination rates

    Chromosomal Abnormalities

    • Nondisjunction: Failure of chromosome separation during meiosis
    • Aneuploidy: Abnormal number of chromosomes, e.g., monosomic, trisomic
    • Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome): Trisomic condition affecting chromosome 21
    • Sex-linked abnormalities: Klinefelter (XXY), XYY, trisomy X, Turner (XO), Swyer syndrome

    Alterations to Chromosomal Structure

    • Deletion: Removal
    • Duplication: Repeating
    • Inversion: Reversing
    • Translocation: Non-homologous chromosome swapping.

    Disorders from Chromosomal Alterations:

    • Cri du chat syndrome: Chromosome 5 deletion (distinct symptoms & outcomes)
    • Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML): Reciprocal translocation causing uncontrollable cell division

    Molecular Basis of Inheritance

    • DNA as genetic material: Identified through experiments (Griffith, Avery-MacLeod-McCarty, Hershey-Chase)
    • Watson & Crick: Double helix structure.
    • DNA replication: Semi-conservative, using existing strands as templates, specific enzymes involved (helicase, topoisomerase, primase, DNA polymerase, ligase)
    • Steps: unwinding, preventing supercoiling, priming, copying, gluing.
    • Leading/Lagging strands: Continuous & discontinuous strands, Okazaki fragments

    Transcription and Translation

    • Transcription: Copying DNA to RNA (RNA polymerase)
    • Post-transcriptional modification (eukaryotes): Introns removed, exons joined
    • Translation: RNA to protein (using ribosomes, tRNA, codons)
    • mRNA: Messenger RNA, carries genetic code to ribosomes
    • tRNA: Transfer RNA, carries amino acids to ribosomes
    • Codons: Three nucleotide sequences coding for amino acids
    • Start/stop codons: Indicate beginning/end of protein synthesis,
    • Ribosomes made of rRNA, crucial to translation process
    • Initiation: mRNA attachment to small subunit, start codon search & large subunit binding
    • Elongation: tRNA brings amino acid, polypeptide chain growth
    • Termination: Stop codon reached, polypeptide release
    • Prokaryotes: Transcription & translation simultaneous in cytoplasm

    Mutations

    • Mutation types: Insertion, deletion, substitution, point mutations, frameshift
    • Effects of mutations: Silent, missense, nonsense, impact polypeptide sequence, may lead to different traits
    • Causes: UV radiation, replication errors, chemicals
    • Mutation correction: Proofreading, mismatch repair, nucleotide excision repair.

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