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Questions and Answers
What is the main focus of the cell cycle?
What is the main focus of the cell cycle?
What is the term for a group of like cells with the same structure and function?
What is the term for a group of like cells with the same structure and function?
What is the term for an abnormal mass of cells that is not normal to the body but is noncancerous?
What is the term for an abnormal mass of cells that is not normal to the body but is noncancerous?
What is the term for the time it takes for a tumor to double its size?
What is the term for the time it takes for a tumor to double its size?
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What happens to cells that leave the cell cycle and remain inactive until reentry into the cycle?
What happens to cells that leave the cell cycle and remain inactive until reentry into the cycle?
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What is the term for a dividing mass of cells that is mutated?
What is the term for a dividing mass of cells that is mutated?
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What is the hierarchy of organization in the human body?
What is the hierarchy of organization in the human body?
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What is the term that combines the Greek words 'neo' and 'plasia'?
What is the term that combines the Greek words 'neo' and 'plasia'?
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What is the stance of the ACS on monthly breast self-examinations for women?
What is the stance of the ACS on monthly breast self-examinations for women?
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What is the recommended age to start screening for colorectal cancer?
What is the recommended age to start screening for colorectal cancer?
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What should be done if a test for colorectal cancer is positive?
What should be done if a test for colorectal cancer is positive?
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What was the ACS's previous recommendation for men aged older than 50 years?
What was the ACS's previous recommendation for men aged older than 50 years?
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Why did the ACS withdraw its recommendation for routine screening for prostate cancer?
Why did the ACS withdraw its recommendation for routine screening for prostate cancer?
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What is a current area of focus in cancer research and identification?
What is a current area of focus in cancer research and identification?
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What is the stance of the ACS on offering self-examinations instruction?
What is the stance of the ACS on offering self-examinations instruction?
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What is the purpose of the ACS's recommended tests for colorectal cancer?
What is the purpose of the ACS's recommended tests for colorectal cancer?
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What is the main reason the author is taking a drug called tamoxifen?
What is the main reason the author is taking a drug called tamoxifen?
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What is the only way to accurately identify a cancer?
What is the only way to accurately identify a cancer?
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What is the author's attitude towards their prognosis?
What is the author's attitude towards their prognosis?
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What is the purpose of a biopsy?
What is the purpose of a biopsy?
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What is one way to deal with cancer, according to the author?
What is one way to deal with cancer, according to the author?
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What is the name of the drug the author is taking?
What is the name of the drug the author is taking?
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What is one diagnostic tool used in detecting lung cancer?
What is one diagnostic tool used in detecting lung cancer?
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What is the author's approach to dealing with their cancer diagnosis?
What is the author's approach to dealing with their cancer diagnosis?
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How did the author feel before turning to God for help?
How did the author feel before turning to God for help?
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What was the author's physical condition like before the surgery?
What was the author's physical condition like before the surgery?
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What was the author's main concern before the surgery?
What was the author's main concern before the surgery?
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What did the author do to cope with their emotions before the surgery?
What did the author do to cope with their emotions before the surgery?
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How did the medical staff make the author feel during the testing process?
How did the medical staff make the author feel during the testing process?
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What did the author find encouraging during the testing process?
What did the author find encouraging during the testing process?
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What was the outcome of the surgery?
What was the outcome of the surgery?
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What was the result of the surgery?
What was the result of the surgery?
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What is the main goal of surgery in cancer treatment?
What is the main goal of surgery in cancer treatment?
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What is the significance of the TNM system in cancer staging?
What is the significance of the TNM system in cancer staging?
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What type of cancer can be removed without any additional intervention?
What type of cancer can be removed without any additional intervention?
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What is the purpose of debulking in cancer treatment?
What is the purpose of debulking in cancer treatment?
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What is the term for cancer that has not spread to neighboring tissue?
What is the term for cancer that has not spread to neighboring tissue?
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What is the main difference between T1, T2, T3, and T4 in the TNM system?
What is the main difference between T1, T2, T3, and T4 in the TNM system?
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What is the term for no regional lymph node involvement?
What is the term for no regional lymph node involvement?
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What is the term for distant metastasis?
What is the term for distant metastasis?
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What is a characteristic of benign tumors?
What is a characteristic of benign tumors?
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What is the term for a group of cells that grows out of control, taking over the function of the affected organ?
What is the term for a group of cells that grows out of control, taking over the function of the affected organ?
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What is the term used to describe the spread of a tumor from the primary site into separate and distant areas?
What is the term used to describe the spread of a tumor from the primary site into separate and distant areas?
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What is the significance of the term 'malignant' in oncology?
What is the significance of the term 'malignant' in oncology?
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How do cancer cells acquire invasive behavior characteristics?
How do cancer cells acquire invasive behavior characteristics?
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What determines the original tumor site of a metastatic tumor?
What determines the original tumor site of a metastatic tumor?
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What is the minimum size of a neoplastic growth that can be detected?
What is the minimum size of a neoplastic growth that can be detected?
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What is the significance of finding lung tissue in the brain?
What is the significance of finding lung tissue in the brain?
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What is the primary function of an organ affected by cancer?
What is the primary function of an organ affected by cancer?
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What is the recommended age to start screening for cervical cancer?
What is the recommended age to start screening for cervical cancer?
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What is the term for the study of tumors and cancer?
What is the term for the study of tumors and cancer?
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What is the recommended frequency for Papanicolaou testing for women aged 30 to 65?
What is the recommended frequency for Papanicolaou testing for women aged 30 to 65?
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What is the term for a tumor that has not spread to neighboring tissue?
What is the term for a tumor that has not spread to neighboring tissue?
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What are the three steps in the formation of a metastasis?
What are the three steps in the formation of a metastasis?
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Why do some women choose not to be screened for cancer?
Why do some women choose not to be screened for cancer?
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What is an important aspect of cancer education?
What is an important aspect of cancer education?
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What is the purpose of organizations like the American Cancer Society?
What is the purpose of organizations like the American Cancer Society?
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What is a common site of metastasis?
What is a common site of metastasis?
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What is the role of a nurse in promoting cancer screening?
What is the role of a nurse in promoting cancer screening?
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What is the result of the three steps in the formation of a metastasis?
What is the result of the three steps in the formation of a metastasis?
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What can a woman choose to do after age 65 if she has had three normal Pap tests in a row?
What can a woman choose to do after age 65 if she has had three normal Pap tests in a row?
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What is the recommended type of screening for women aged 30 to 65?
What is the recommended type of screening for women aged 30 to 65?
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What is the recommended frequency for breast cancer screening for women with a high risk of breast cancer?
What is the recommended frequency for breast cancer screening for women with a high risk of breast cancer?
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What is the recommended age to start screening for breast cancer for women with an average risk?
What is the recommended age to start screening for breast cancer for women with an average risk?
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What is the primary purpose of a biopsy in cancer diagnosis?
What is the primary purpose of a biopsy in cancer diagnosis?
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What is the author's current approach to dealing with their cancer diagnosis?
What is the author's current approach to dealing with their cancer diagnosis?
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What is one common diagnostic tool used in detecting lung cancer?
What is one common diagnostic tool used in detecting lung cancer?
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What is the author's current medication for cancer treatment?
What is the author's current medication for cancer treatment?
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What is the author's attitude towards their prognosis?
What is the author's attitude towards their prognosis?
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What is one common side effect of the medication tamoxifen?
What is one common side effect of the medication tamoxifen?
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Why is a biopsy commonly done in an HCP's office or outpatient surgery department?
Why is a biopsy commonly done in an HCP's office or outpatient surgery department?
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What is the author's approach to coping with their emotions during the cancer diagnosis?
What is the author's approach to coping with their emotions during the cancer diagnosis?
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What is the main use of PET scans in cancer diagnosis?
What is the main use of PET scans in cancer diagnosis?
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What is the use of ultrasound in cancer diagnosis?
What is the use of ultrasound in cancer diagnosis?
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What is the tumor marker associated with prostate cancer?
What is the tumor marker associated with prostate cancer?
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What is the purpose of endoscopic procedures in cancer diagnosis?
What is the purpose of endoscopic procedures in cancer diagnosis?
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What is the tumor marker associated with ovarian, cervical, liver, and pancreatic cancers?
What is the tumor marker associated with ovarian, cervical, liver, and pancreatic cancers?
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What is the main use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in cancer diagnosis?
What is the main use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in cancer diagnosis?
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What is the tumor marker associated with colorectal, pancreatic, and hepatobiliary cancers?
What is the tumor marker associated with colorectal, pancreatic, and hepatobiliary cancers?
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What is the use of PET scans in brain imaging?
What is the use of PET scans in brain imaging?
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What is a potential health hazard for recent immigrants and visitors to Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland?
What is a potential health hazard for recent immigrants and visitors to Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland?
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Why are African American men at a higher risk for developing cancer related to their work?
Why are African American men at a higher risk for developing cancer related to their work?
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What is a characteristic of colon tumors in African Americans?
What is a characteristic of colon tumors in African Americans?
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What is the difference in the 5-year survival rate between African Americans and European Americans?
What is the difference in the 5-year survival rate between African Americans and European Americans?
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What is a common feature of cancer sites among African Americans?
What is a common feature of cancer sites among African Americans?
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Why do African Americans report later for cancer treatment?
Why do African Americans report later for cancer treatment?
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What is a potential health risk for Eastern European immigrants?
What is a potential health risk for Eastern European immigrants?
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Why is it essential for HCPs to carefully screen individuals for certain cancers?
Why is it essential for HCPs to carefully screen individuals for certain cancers?
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What is a common reason for delay in seeking treatment for cancer symptoms among Hispanic populations?
What is a common reason for delay in seeking treatment for cancer symptoms among Hispanic populations?
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What is an effective approach to educating Hispanic populations about cancer prevention and early warning signs?
What is an effective approach to educating Hispanic populations about cancer prevention and early warning signs?
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What is a significant barrier to preventive healthcare among Hispanic populations?
What is a significant barrier to preventive healthcare among Hispanic populations?
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Why are many Hispanic Americans fearful of getting cancer?
Why are many Hispanic Americans fearful of getting cancer?
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What is a common occupation among Hispanic populations that may increase their risk of cancer?
What is a common occupation among Hispanic populations that may increase their risk of cancer?
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What is an effective way to educate Hispanic populations about cancer prevention and early warning signs?
What is an effective way to educate Hispanic populations about cancer prevention and early warning signs?
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Why are many Hispanic Americans less likely to seek medical treatment for cancer symptoms?
Why are many Hispanic Americans less likely to seek medical treatment for cancer symptoms?
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What is a common challenge in providing healthcare to Hispanic populations?
What is a common challenge in providing healthcare to Hispanic populations?
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What is the primary factor that determines the risk of cancer development when exposed to chemical carcinogens?
What is the primary factor that determines the risk of cancer development when exposed to chemical carcinogens?
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Which of the following is a consequence of immune system suppression?
Which of the following is a consequence of immune system suppression?
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What is the consequence of altered immunity in individuals with chronic illness and stress?
What is the consequence of altered immunity in individuals with chronic illness and stress?
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Why are chemical agents, such as those in tobacco, more toxic when used with alcohol?
Why are chemical agents, such as those in tobacco, more toxic when used with alcohol?
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What is the association between smoking and lung cancer?
What is the association between smoking and lung cancer?
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What is the consequence of a traumatic, stressful period in life, such as the loss of a mate or a job?
What is the consequence of a traumatic, stressful period in life, such as the loss of a mate or a job?
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What is the effect of a healthy immune system on cancer formation?
What is the effect of a healthy immune system on cancer formation?
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What is the significance of estrogen or progesterone dependence in breast tumor treatment?
What is the significance of estrogen or progesterone dependence in breast tumor treatment?
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What is a significant barrier to cancer prevention in American Indian populations?
What is a significant barrier to cancer prevention in American Indian populations?
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Which virus is associated with Burkitt's lymphoma?
Which virus is associated with Burkitt's lymphoma?
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What is a key strategy for decreasing cancer risk in American Indian populations?
What is a key strategy for decreasing cancer risk in American Indian populations?
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What is the outcome of incorporating American Indian healing practices into cancer prevention efforts?
What is the outcome of incorporating American Indian healing practices into cancer prevention efforts?
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What is a common risk factor for cancer in American Indian populations?
What is a common risk factor for cancer in American Indian populations?
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What is the role of the Indian Health Service and Bureau of Indian Affairs in cancer prevention efforts?
What is the role of the Indian Health Service and Bureau of Indian Affairs in cancer prevention efforts?
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What is a key strategy for promoting healthy eating habits in American Indian populations?
What is a key strategy for promoting healthy eating habits in American Indian populations?
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What is the significance of working with tribal community leaders in cancer prevention efforts?
What is the significance of working with tribal community leaders in cancer prevention efforts?
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What is the primary purpose of a biopsy in cancer diagnosis?
What is the primary purpose of a biopsy in cancer diagnosis?
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What is the author's attitude towards their cancer diagnosis?
What is the author's attitude towards their cancer diagnosis?
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What is the role of radiological procedures in cancer diagnosis?
What is the role of radiological procedures in cancer diagnosis?
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What is the author's approach to dealing with their cancer diagnosis?
What is the author's approach to dealing with their cancer diagnosis?
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What is the significance of tamoxifen in the author's treatment?
What is the significance of tamoxifen in the author's treatment?
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What is the author's current emotional state?
What is the author's current emotional state?
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What is the primary benefit of staying involved in everyday activities, according to the author?
What is the primary benefit of staying involved in everyday activities, according to the author?
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What is the significance of the author's statement, 'I am a survivor'?
What is the significance of the author's statement, 'I am a survivor'?
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Study Notes
Cancer Screening and Diagnosis
- The American Cancer Society (ACS) recommends monthly breast self-examinations as optional for women and testicular self-examinations as optional for men.
- The ACS also recommends one of the following options for screening for colorectal cancer starting at age 50:
- Flexible sigmoidoscopy every 5 years
- Colonoscopy every 10 years
- Double-contrast barium enema every 5 years
- Colonography (virtual colonoscopy using computed tomography) every 5 years
- Tests that mainly find cancer include:
- Fecal occult blood test every year
- Fecal immunochemical test every year
- If any tests are positive, a colonoscopy should be done.
Cell Cycle and Tumor Growth
- The cell cycle involves a series of changes through which a cell progresses, starting from the time it develops until it reproduces itself.
- Important concepts related to tumor growth and treatment strategies include:
- Duration of the cell's life
- Time it takes for mitosis to occur
- Growth ratio (percentage of cycling cells)
- Frequency of cell loss
- Doubling time (the time for a tumor to double its size)
- Cells can be actively dividing, leave the cycle after a certain point and die, or temporarily leave the cycle and remain inactive until re-entry into the cycle.
Types of Tumors
- A benign tumor is a cluster of cells that is not normal to the body but is noncancerous.
- The better defined or differentiated the tumor, the easier it is to treat.
- Malignant tumors resist treatment and tend to worsen and threaten life.
Cancer Treatment
- Surgery: can be curative when it is possible to remove the entire tumor.
- Radiation therapy: can be used to treat the remaining tumor cells.
- Chemotherapy: can be used to treat the remaining tumor cells.
Cancer Staging
- The TNM (Tumor, Node, Metastasis) system is used to stage cancer.
- Primary Tumor (T):
- TX: Primary tumor cannot be evaluated
- T0: No evidence of primary tumor
- Tis: Carcinoma in situ (early cancer that has not spread to neighboring tissue)
- T1, T2, T3, T4: Size and/or extent of the primary tumor
- Regional Lymph Nodes (N):
- NX: Regional lymph nodes cannot be evaluated
- N0: No regional lymph node involvement
- N1, N2, N3: Involvement of regional lymph nodes (number and location of lymph nodes)
- Distant Metastasis (M):
- MX: Distant metastasis cannot be evaluated
- M0: No distant metastasis
- M1: Distant metastasis
Biopsy
- Accurate identification of a cancer can be made only by biopsy.
- Microscopic examination of a sample of suspected tissue or aspirated body fluid can confirm the presence of mutant cells.
- Biopsy is commonly done in an HCP's office or outpatient surgery department.
Radiological Procedures
- X-ray examination is a valuable diagnostic tool in detecting cancer of the bones and hollow organs.
- Chest x-ray examination is one diagnostic test used in detecting lung cancer.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- MRI is valuable in the detection, localization, and staging of malignant tumors in the central nervous system, spine, head, and musculoskeletal system.
Tumor Markers and Associated Cancers
- Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP): hepatocellular cancer
- Cancer antigen (CA) 15-3: breast cancer
- CA 125: ovarian, cervical, liver, and pancreatic cancers
- Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA): colon and rectal cancers
- Prostate-specific antigen (PSA): prostate cancer### Personal Experience with Cancer
- The author reflects on their personal experience with cancer, expressing relief at overcoming the worst part of the journey.
- They emphasize the importance of staying involved in daily activities and educating oneself about the disease and its treatments to cope with it.
- The author takes tamoxifen, a drug with side effects like hot flashes and sweats, but is grateful for a good prognosis and expects a complete cure.
Biopsy for Cancer Diagnosis
- Accurate identification of cancer requires a biopsy, which involves microscopic examination of a tissue or fluid sample.
- A biopsy can be performed in an HCP's office or outpatient surgery department.
- There are different types of biopsies, as shown in Figures 11.9 and 11.10.
Radiological Procedures for Cancer Diagnosis
- X-ray examinations are a valuable diagnostic tool for detecting cancer in bones and hollow organs.
- Chest x-rays are used to detect lung cancer.
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Description
Learn about the cell cycle, its stages, and how it relates to tumor growth, including benign tumors, and understand key concepts like duration of cell life, growth ratio, and doubling time.