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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the Golgi apparatus?
What is the primary function of the Golgi apparatus?
- To produce energy for the cell
- To break down waste materials in the cell
- To sort, modify, and ship products from the rough ER (correct)
- To synthesize proteins for cellular functions
What characteristic structure does the Golgi apparatus resemble?
What characteristic structure does the Golgi apparatus resemble?
- Spherical vesicles
- Pancakes stacked in a stack (correct)
- A network of filaments
- Long tubular structures
What happens to products received by the Golgi apparatus?
What happens to products received by the Golgi apparatus?
- They are sorted and packaged into new vesicles. (correct)
- They are exported directly without modification.
- They are synthesized into new proteins.
- They are destroyed for recycling.
Which organelle is responsible for breaking down unneeded cellular components?
Which organelle is responsible for breaking down unneeded cellular components?
What is the process by which a cell digests its own structures called?
What is the process by which a cell digests its own structures called?
Which of the following is a primary function of peroxisomes?
Which of the following is a primary function of peroxisomes?
Where does the vesicle go after packaging if the product is to be exported from the cell?
Where does the vesicle go after packaging if the product is to be exported from the cell?
What type of membrane-bound organelle contains enzymes for various functions, including lipid metabolism?
What type of membrane-bound organelle contains enzymes for various functions, including lipid metabolism?
What is the primary function of the G1 phase in the cell cycle?
What is the primary function of the G1 phase in the cell cycle?
During which phase does a cell replicate its DNA?
During which phase does a cell replicate its DNA?
What is the significance of checkpoints in the cell cycle?
What is the significance of checkpoints in the cell cycle?
Which phase is characterized by cells that have temporarily stopped dividing?
Which phase is characterized by cells that have temporarily stopped dividing?
What role do cyclins play in the cell cycle?
What role do cyclins play in the cell cycle?
How long does the S phase typically last during the cell cycle?
How long does the S phase typically last during the cell cycle?
Which phase follows the S phase in the cell cycle sequence?
Which phase follows the S phase in the cell cycle sequence?
What is primarily evaluated at a cell cycle checkpoint?
What is primarily evaluated at a cell cycle checkpoint?
What is the primary function of cilia in the female fallopian tubes?
What is the primary function of cilia in the female fallopian tubes?
Which of the following statements is true about the nucleus?
Which of the following statements is true about the nucleus?
What role do intermediate filaments play in a cell?
What role do intermediate filaments play in a cell?
What is unique about the only flagellated cell in humans?
What is unique about the only flagellated cell in humans?
Which protein is primarily associated with microfilaments in muscle tissue?
Which protein is primarily associated with microfilaments in muscle tissue?
What happens to red blood cells (RBCs) as they mature?
What happens to red blood cells (RBCs) as they mature?
What is the function of the nuclear envelope?
What is the function of the nuclear envelope?
During cell division, what role does actin play?
During cell division, what role does actin play?
Which type of cytoskeletal filament is intermediate in thickness between microtubules and microfilaments?
Which type of cytoskeletal filament is intermediate in thickness between microtubules and microfilaments?
What is the significance of the nuclear pore?
What is the significance of the nuclear pore?
What is the primary source of Platelet-Derived Growth Factor (PDGF)?
What is the primary source of Platelet-Derived Growth Factor (PDGF)?
Which mediator has the strongest effect on vascular permeability during acute inflammation?
Which mediator has the strongest effect on vascular permeability during acute inflammation?
Which phase is NOT part of the inflammatory response?
Which phase is NOT part of the inflammatory response?
What is the primary effect of interleukins in chronic inflammation?
What is the primary effect of interleukins in chronic inflammation?
Which layer of skin serves as the waterproof barrier?
Which layer of skin serves as the waterproof barrier?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of chronic inflammation?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of chronic inflammation?
What is the primary role of melanocytes in the skin?
What is the primary role of melanocytes in the skin?
Which mediators are primarily produced by macrophages and T lymphocytes during chronic inflammation?
Which mediators are primarily produced by macrophages and T lymphocytes during chronic inflammation?
What is the primary function of connective tissues?
What is the primary function of connective tissues?
Which of the following statements correctly describes epithelial tissues?
Which of the following statements correctly describes epithelial tissues?
What type of epithelial tissue consists of a single layer of irregularly shaped cells?
What type of epithelial tissue consists of a single layer of irregularly shaped cells?
Which muscle type is categorized as voluntary?
Which muscle type is categorized as voluntary?
What is a key feature of nervous tissue?
What is a key feature of nervous tissue?
Endocrine glands are characterized by which of the following?
Endocrine glands are characterized by which of the following?
Which type of epithelial tissue acts as a barrier and controls permeability?
Which type of epithelial tissue acts as a barrier and controls permeability?
Which of the following best describes cuboidal epithelial cells?
Which of the following best describes cuboidal epithelial cells?
What type of secretion do eccrine sweat glands provide?
What type of secretion do eccrine sweat glands provide?
Which gland is responsible for secreting oily sebum into hair follicles?
Which gland is responsible for secreting oily sebum into hair follicles?
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Study Notes
Endomembrane System Organelles
- Golgi Apparatus:
- Modifies, packages, and ships off products from the rough ER
- Produces lysosomes
- Resembles stacked flattened discs
- Has two distinct sides:
- One side receives products in vesicles
- The other side releases repackaged products in new vesicles
- Vesicles carrying exported products fuse with cell membrane for secretion
Lysosomes
- Contain enzymes for breaking down and digesting cellular components
- Autophagy: process of a cell digesting its own structures
Peroxisomes
- Membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes
- Functions:
- Lipid metabolism
The Nucleus and DNA Replication
- The Nucleus
- Largest and most prominent organelle in a cell
- Considered the control center of the cell because it stores genetic instructions for protein manufacture
- Multinucleated cells have more than one nucleus (e.g., muscle cells)
- Mammalian red blood cells lack nuclei
- Red blood cells eject nuclei during maturation, making space for hemoglobin
- Without nuclei, red blood cells have a short lifespan
- Sends "commands" to the cell via molecular messengers
Organization of Nucleus and Its DNA
-
Nuclear Envelope
- Membrane surrounding the nucleus
- Consists of two adjacent lipid bilayers with a thin fluid space
-
Nuclear Pores
- Tiny passageways for proteins, RNA, and solutes
Cell Cycle
- The sequence of events in a cell's life from its creation to its division
- Consists of two main phases:
Interphase
- Period during which the cell is not dividing
- Most cells spend most of their time in interphase
- Divided into:
- G1 phase: first growth phase
- S phase: DNA replication occurs
- G2 phase: second gap phase, preparation for mitosis
- G0 phase: resting phase, cells temporarily stopped dividing
Mitosis
- The process of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells
Connective Tissues
- Bind and support the cells and organs of the body
- Includes:
- Connective tissue proper
- Cartilage
- Bone
- Blood
Muscle Tissues
- Specialized for contraction
- Types:
- Skeletal (voluntary)
- Cardiac
- Smooth
Nervous Tissues
- Composed of:
- Nerve cells (neurons)
- Glia cells (neuroglial)
- Allow propagation of electrochemical signals (nerve impulses)
Epithelial Tissues
- Line the body’s surfaces and cavities
- Form a barrier between the internal and external environments
- Avascular: don't contain blood vessels
- Functions:
- Protection from physical, chemical, and biological wear and tear
- Gatekeeping: control permeability and selective transfer of materials
- Secretion of mucous and chemical compounds
Classification of Epithelial Tissues
-
Shape:
- Squamous: flattened and thin
- Cuboidal: boxy, as wide as it is tall
- Columnar: rectangular, taller than it is wide
-
Number of Layers:
- Simple: one layer
- Stratified: more than one layer
- Pseudostratified: appears to be multiple layers, but is actually one layer with irregularly shaped cells
Endocrine and Exocrine Glands
- Consist of groups of epithelial cells
- Exocrine glands:
- Secrete their products outside the epithelial membranes through ducts (e.g., lacrimal glands, sebaceous glands, eccrine sweat glands, apocrine sweat glands)
The Inflammatory Response
- A protective response to injury or infection
- Three phases:
- Acute inflammation: initial response, characterized by redness, swelling, heat, and pain
- Immune response: delayed phase, involves antibody production and activation of immune cells
- Chronic inflammation: prolonged inflammation, can lead to tissue damage and scarring
Platelet Derived Growth Factor (PDGF)
- Source: macrophages, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, platelets
- Primary effects: fibroblast chemotaxis and proliferation
Rheumatoid Arthritis
- Chronic inflammation
- Causes pain and destruction of bone and cartilage
- Can lead to severe disability and shortening of life
- Autoimmune disease: T-cell activation triggers production of IL-1 and TNF-alpha
Mediators of Acute Inflammation
-
Vasodilation
-
Increased permeability
-
Chemotaxis
-
Pain
-
Histamine:
- Causes significant vasodilation and increased permeability
-
Serotonin:
- Mild vasodilation and increased permeability
-
Bradykinin:
- Strong vasodilation and increased permeability
- Causes pain
-
Prostaglandins:
- Vasodilation and increased permeability
- Pain and chemotaxis
-
Leukotriene:
- Increased permeability and chemotaxis
Mediators of Chronic Inflammation
- Interleukins 1, 2, 3
- Source: macrophages, T lymphocytes
- Primary effects: lymphocyte activation and prostaglandin production
The Skin
- Largest organ of the body
- Total area: 20 square feet
- Three layers:
Epidermis
- Outermost layer
- Provides a waterproof barrier
- Determines skin tone
- Contains 8-10 layers of keratinocytes
Dermis
- Beneath the epidermis
- Composed of tough connective tissue
Hypodermis
-
Subcutaneous layer
-
Contains fat and connective tissue
-
Melanocytes: produce melanin (pigment)
Stratum Spinosum
- Layer of the epidermis
- Keratinocytes begin synthesizing keratin
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