Cell Biology and Signal Transduction
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Questions and Answers

What binds to a receptor?

ligand

What are the two main things a ligand binding on a receptor can do?

  • Initiate a second messenger (correct)
  • Decrease cell size
  • Increase cell size
  • Interact directly with DNA (correct)

    • Elements that regulate transcription long range are sometimes called ______ and are pieces of ______ that regulate transcription long range

    enhancers, DNA

    What is the main job of growth factors?

    <p>Prevent apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of toxins combine with critical molecular components or cellular organelles, disrupting function? Mercury is an example.

    <p>Direct-acting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of toxins are converted from benign to reactive metabolites that act on target cells?

    <p>Latent toxins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are free radicals that are highly reactive and react with cellular components, destroying them?

    <p>Reactive oxygen species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are irreversible signs of cell damage? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Inability to restore mitochondrial function (A), Loss of DNA and chromatin structural integrity (C), Loss of the fin of the plasma membrane (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements correctly describes apoptosis and necrosis? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Apoptosis is a controlled process, while necrosis is uncontrolled and unprogrammed. (C), Necrosis usually involves inflammation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for increased cell size?

    <p>Hypertrophy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a change in adult cell type?

    <p>Metaplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hyperplasia alone is enough to cause cancer.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can cause atrophy?

    <p>All of the above (G)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are examples of metaplasia? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Barrett's esophagus (B), Smokers' bronchi (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for disorderly proliferation of cells?

    <p>Dysplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does ischemia usually occur?

    <p>Places with stores of glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ischemia in places that store glucose leads to a reliance on what?

    <p>Glycogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is produced when glycogen is broken down anaerobically?

    <p>Lactate (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the late stage of coagulative necrosis, what happens to membrane-bound organelles?

    <p>They burst</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to cellular architecture when cells burst?

    <p>It remains intact</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What rushes into cells when they burst during coagulative necrosis? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Neutrophils (A), Calcium (B), Macrophages (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of the body is involved in liquefactive necrosis?

    <p>CNS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the pH in liquefactive necrosis?

    <p>It remains constant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What fails during liquefactive necrosis?

    <p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is still active during liquefactive necrosis?

    <p>Enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the description of a liquefactively necrotic cell under a microscope?

    <p>Moth-eaten</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What results from caseous necrosis?

    <p>Granulomas (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What surrounds the walls of a caseously necrotic cell?

    <p>Macrophages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two types of fat necrosis?

    <p>Enzymatic and Traumatic (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What dismantles triglycerides in adipose tissue during fat necrosis?

    <p>Pancreatic enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of making soap from salt and lipids?

    <p>Saponification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    ligand

    The thing that binds to a receptor.

    ligand actions

    A ligand can either initiate a second messenger or interact directly with DNA.

    enhancers

    Elements regulating transcription long range, pieces of DNA.

    growth factors

    Their main job is to prevent apoptosis.

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    direct-acting toxins

    Combine with critical parts of cells, disrupting function, like mercury.

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    latent toxins

    Converted from benign to reactive metabolites affecting target cells.

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    reactive oxygen species

    Highly reactive free radicals that destroy cellular components.

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    irreversible signs of cell damage

    Inability to restore mitochondrial function, loss of plasma membrane, loss of DNA integrity.

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    apoptosis vs necrosis

    Apoptosis is controlled, while necrosis is uncontrolled and involves inflammation.

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    hypertrophy

    Increased cell size.

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    hyperplasia

    Increased cell number.

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    atrophy

    Decreased cell size.

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    metaplasia

    Change in adult cell type.

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    dysplasia

    Disorderly proliferation of cells.

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    ischemia

    Often occurs in areas with glucose stores.

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    lactate and pH from glycogen

    Glycogen supports anaerobic metabolism, producing lactate, lowering pH causing protein denaturation.

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    late-stage coagulative necrosis

    Membrane-bound organelles burst during this stage.

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    inflammation manifestations

    Involves rubor, calor, tumor, dolor.

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    chemokines

    Act as attractants for leukocytes.

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    TNF and IL-1 roles

    Cytokines important for systemic response.

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    prostaglandins functions

    Homeostasis in kidneys, protect GI tract.

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    serous inflammation

    Watery inflammation from injury to serous epithelium.

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    exudate

    Fluid with high protein and cellular debris due to increased permeability.

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    NSAIDs role

    Turn down prostaglandins to treat fever.

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    macrophages function

    They respond longer in phagocytosis and support collagen formation.

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    scars formation

    If the structural framework is damaged, scars form.

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    chronic inflammation

    Involves macrophages and can lead to fibrosis.

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    fatty liver causes

    Alcohol abuse, diabetes with obesity, and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis.

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    granulomatous inflammation

    Occurs when an agent cannot be eliminated.

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    peptic ulcers and kidney disease

    Major side effects of prostaglandins.

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    Study Notes

    Ligand Binding to Receptors

    • Ligands bind to receptors
    • Ligand binding can initiate second messengers
    • Ligand binding can interact directly with DNA

    Growth Factors and Toxins

    • Growth factors prevent apoptosis
    • Direct-acting toxins disrupt cellular function by binding to critical components or organelles(e.g., mercury)
    • Latent toxins are initially benign but become reactive metabolites harming target cells
    • Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are highly reactive free radicals damaging cellular components

    Cell Damage and Death

    • Irreversible cell damage includes the inability to restore mitochondrial function, loss of plasma membrane integrity, and loss of DNA/chromatin structure
    • Apoptosis is programmed cell death (controlled) while necrosis is uncontrolled cell death often involving inflammation
    • Cell size changes include hypertrophy (increased cell size), hyperplasia (increased cell number), atrophy (decreased cell size), and metaplasia (change in cell type)

    Cell Damage and Cancer

    • Hyperplasia alone does not cause cancer
    • Atrophy can result from decreased workload, loss of innervation, poor blood supply, poor nutrition, or aging
    • Metaplasia is seen in smokers' bronchi and Barrett's esophagus
    • Dysplasia is disordered cell proliferation
    • Ischemia, especially in glucose storage tissues, leads to reliance on glycogen for anaerobic metabolism, producing lactate, lowering pH, and denaturing proteins
    • In coagulative necrosis, membrane-bound organelles burst, but the cellular architecture remains intact. Calcium, macrophages, and neutrophils rush in

    Types of Necrosis

    • Liquefactive necrosis (found in CNS) is characterized by maintaining constant pH, ATP pumps failing, organelle rupture, and active enzymes, resulting in a "moth-eaten" appearance under a microscope.
    • Caseous necrosis forms granulomas (e.g., tuberculosis), surrounded by macrophages
    • Fat necrosis can be enzymatic (e.g., pancreatic enzymes) or traumatic; it often leads to saponification (making soap from salt and lipids)
    • Fibrinoid necrosis is a hypersensitivity reaction in blood vessels
    • Eosinophils are often elevated in necrotic bloodwork

    Apoptosis Mechanisms

    • Intrinsic apoptosis involves mitochondria and is often triggered by embryonic development, lack of external survival signals, or P53 tumor suppressor activity.
    • P53 activities include initiating DNA repair, arresting cellular respiration, or inducing BAD under high concentrations
    • The BAD pathway involves BAD binding to BCL-2, allowing Bax/Bak to come together, releasing Cytochrome C, and initiating caspase activation for self-destruction.
    • Extrinsic apoptosis is triggered by death receptors like TNF-α and Fas/Fas ligand, mainly in the thymus.

    Inflammation

    • Inflammation's cardinal signs are rubor (redness), calor (heat), tumor (swelling), and dolor (pain)
    • Phagocytes and dendritic cells detect pathogens
    • Cytokines (inflammation, antiviral interferons, and lymphocyte activators) are released
    • Signals flow through the cytoplasm indicating problems. DNA breakdown is a signal.
    • The inflammasome recruits leukocytes to respond to danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPS).
    • Inflammation leads to vasodilation and increased vascular permeability, causing exudate (high protein, cellular debris) to flow out of vessels. Transudate (low protein, cellular debris) results from normal blood vessel conditions.
    • Histamine release from mast cells is a major driver of vasodilation
    • The complement system functions in lysis, inflammation activation, opsonization, and immune clearance
    • Cytokines activate endothelial cells for leukocyte adhesion, and chemokines attract leukocytes. TNF blockers (e.g., infliximab, adalimumab, etanercept) treat chronic inflammatory diseases
    • Bradykinin is a vasoactive peptide causing vascular permeability and pain.
    • Serous inflammation results from injury to serous epithelium, while fibrinous inflammation is a hallmark of chronic inflammation. Ulcers arise from sloughing of inflamed tissue, and granulomatous inflammation occurs when agents can't be eliminated. Septic shock is a massive cytokine response (TNF, IL-1)
    • NSAIDs reduce prostaglandins to treat fever. Regenerative capacity depends on cell types' proliferative potential; the liver has regenerative capacity. Scars and macrophages are involved in ECM remodeling, with keloids being excessive ECM production. Persistent inflammation can cause extensive tissue loss and functional impairment (fibrosis).

    Causes and Consequences of Cellular Changes and Inflammatory Processes

    • Alcohol abuse, diabetes with obesity, and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis can cause fatty liver changes
    • Anthracosis, a coal miner's lung, results from exogenous carbon.

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    Description

    This quiz focuses on the concepts of ligand binding to receptors, the role of growth factors and toxins, and mechanisms of cell damage and death. Key topics include apoptosis, necrosis, and the impact of reactive oxygen species on cells. Test your knowledge on these critical aspects of cell biology.

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