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Questions and Answers
Which factor is NOT typically required to complete the causal circle for disease?
Which factor is NOT typically required to complete the causal circle for disease?
In the context of multifactorial causation, which model describes factors acting independently to produce the same disease?
In the context of multifactorial causation, which model describes factors acting independently to produce the same disease?
Which criterion for judging causality requires that exposure to a potential causal factor must occur before the onset of the disease?
Which criterion for judging causality requires that exposure to a potential causal factor must occur before the onset of the disease?
What does a larger relative risk typically indicate in terms of causal association?
What does a larger relative risk typically indicate in terms of causal association?
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Which of the following diseases exemplifies multifactorial causation with several independent risk factors?
Which of the following diseases exemplifies multifactorial causation with several independent risk factors?
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What is meant by a 'biological gradient' in the context of causality?
What is meant by a 'biological gradient' in the context of causality?
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Which of the following statements best describes the complexity of causal association in multifactorial diseases?
Which of the following statements best describes the complexity of causal association in multifactorial diseases?
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Which factor is considered crucial for establishing a causal relationship between a risk factor and a disease?
Which factor is considered crucial for establishing a causal relationship between a risk factor and a disease?
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Which approach is NOT part of establishing a cause and effect relationship according to the criteria for judging causality?
Which approach is NOT part of establishing a cause and effect relationship according to the criteria for judging causality?
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What is the primary purpose of descriptive studies in epidemiology?
What is the primary purpose of descriptive studies in epidemiology?
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Which of the following best describes the term 'association' in epidemiology?
Which of the following best describes the term 'association' in epidemiology?
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Which measure of association compares the risk of a health event between two differentiated groups?
Which measure of association compares the risk of a health event between two differentiated groups?
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What distinguishes the odds ratio from other measures of association?
What distinguishes the odds ratio from other measures of association?
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Which type of association is characterized by a non-real relationship between a factor and an outcome?
Which type of association is characterized by a non-real relationship between a factor and an outcome?
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What does a risk ratio compare in epidemiological studies?
What does a risk ratio compare in epidemiological studies?
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In the context of causal associations, what is meant by 'one-to-one causal association'?
In the context of causal associations, what is meant by 'one-to-one causal association'?
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Which of the following statements about analytical and experimental studies is true?
Which of the following statements about analytical and experimental studies is true?
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What is the significance of examining perinatal mortality rates in the context of home vs. hospital births?
What is the significance of examining perinatal mortality rates in the context of home vs. hospital births?
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What is the main reason that hospitals may have a higher perinatal mortality rate compared to home deliveries?
What is the main reason that hospitals may have a higher perinatal mortality rate compared to home deliveries?
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What is a confounding variable?
What is a confounding variable?
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In the example of high coffee drinking and ischemic heart disease, what common factor was identified?
In the example of high coffee drinking and ischemic heart disease, what common factor was identified?
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How is endemic goitre associated with altitude?
How is endemic goitre associated with altitude?
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What defines a one-to-one causal relationship?
What defines a one-to-one causal relationship?
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Which statement about indirect associations is true?
Which statement about indirect associations is true?
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What is an example of a condition that is suggested to have a one-to-one causal relationship?
What is an example of a condition that is suggested to have a one-to-one causal relationship?
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What complication can arise when analyzing causal relationships in health studies?
What complication can arise when analyzing causal relationships in health studies?
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What was the misinterpretation regarding home births and hospital deliveries?
What was the misinterpretation regarding home births and hospital deliveries?
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Which of the following is NOT a common confounding variable in health studies?
Which of the following is NOT a common confounding variable in health studies?
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What does the concept of specificity imply regarding the relationship between cause and effect?
What does the concept of specificity imply regarding the relationship between cause and effect?
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Which factor is essential for establishing a consistent association in epidemiological studies?
Which factor is essential for establishing a consistent association in epidemiological studies?
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Why is biological plausibility important in assessing causal associations?
Why is biological plausibility important in assessing causal associations?
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What indicates coherence of an association between two factors according to the provided information?
What indicates coherence of an association between two factors according to the provided information?
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Which of the following best exemplifies a multifactorial association?
Which of the following best exemplifies a multifactorial association?
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Which scenario reflects a lack of biological plausibility?
Which scenario reflects a lack of biological plausibility?
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What does the concept of consistency of association primarily rely on?
What does the concept of consistency of association primarily rely on?
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Which statement about the coherence criterion is true?
Which statement about the coherence criterion is true?
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In the context of smoking and lung cancer, which variety of studies indicated a consistent association?
In the context of smoking and lung cancer, which variety of studies indicated a consistent association?
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What role do risk factors play in asserting specificity?
What role do risk factors play in asserting specificity?
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Study Notes
Causality and Association
- Descriptive studies identify disease problems in communities, relating them to host, agent, and environmental factors to propose etiological hypotheses.
- Analytical and experimental studies test these hypotheses, confirming or disproving observed associations between suspected causes and diseases.
Association
- Association (relationship) is the concurrence of two variables more often than expected by chance.
- Events are considered associated if their occurrences are more frequent together than anticipated by chance.
- Association does not imply causation.
Measures of Association
- Measures of association compare disease occurrence in one group to another.
- Common measures include risk ratio (relative risk), odds ratio, and proportionate mortality ratio.
Risk Ratio
- Also known as relative risk, compares the risk of a health event (e.g., disease, injury) in one group to another.
- Groups are typically distinguished by demographics (e.g., sex) or exposure to a suspected risk factor.
- The risk of developing the health outcome is compared between the groups.
Odds Ratio
- A measure of association quantifying the relationship between an exposure with two categories and a health outcome.
- Determined by enrolling a group with the disease (case-patients) and a comparable disease-free group (controls).
- Reflects the comparison of exposure probability between the two groups (diseased and non-diseased).
Types of Association
- Spurious association: A non-real relationship between a factor and an outcome, often due to a third factor. Example: Home births having a lower perinatal mortality rate than hospital births, but hospitals tending to treat higher-risk patients.
- Indirect association: A statistical association between a characteristic/variable and a disease, due to a common unknown factor (confounding variable). Example of confounding: high coffee intake might be linked to heart disease, but heavy smokers tend to drink more coffee.
- Direct/Causal association: (i) One-to-one: A change in one variable directly causes a change in another. An example is measles. (ii) Multifactorial: Multiple factors independently contribute to the disease, or they act cumulatively. Example of lung cancer and complex factors like smoking and pollution.
Criteria for Judging Causality
- Temporal association: Exposure must precede the disease onset
- Strength of association: Higher relative risk suggests a stronger likelihood of causality
- Specificity of the association: Ideal that a single cause leads to a single disease (not always the case).
- Consistency of association: Similar associations consistently observed in several studies in different contexts.
- Biological plausibility: The association should align with current biological understanding.
- Coherence of the association: The association should be aligned with other known facts, like historical trends.
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Description
This quiz covers key concepts related to causality and association in epidemiology. You will explore descriptive and analytical studies, measures of association, and the implications of risk ratios. Test your knowledge about how associations are established in the context of disease occurrence.
