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Questions and Answers
What is the main difference between association and causation?
What is the main difference between association and causation?
- Association refers to a relationship between two variables, while causation indicates a cause-and-effect relationship. (correct)
- Association and causation are two terms used interchangeably to describe the same concept.
- Association refers to a weaker form of causation, suggesting a possible relationship.
- Association and causation are two different terms that describe unrelated concepts.
What is the purpose of the Bradford-Hill criteria?
What is the purpose of the Bradford-Hill criteria?
- To establish a correlation between two variables.
- To judge when an association might be causal. (correct)
- To prove that an association is causal.
- To determine the strength of an association.
What is one of the key features of a strong association?
What is one of the key features of a strong association?
- The association is based on a single study.
- The relative risk is low (<1).
- The association is based on a small sample size.
- The relative risk is high (>1). (correct)
Which of the following is one of the Bradford-Hill criteria?
Which of the following is one of the Bradford-Hill criteria?
What was the significance of the 1964 US Surgeon General's report on smoking?
What was the significance of the 1964 US Surgeon General's report on smoking?
What is the primary difference between association and causation?
What is the primary difference between association and causation?
What is a necessary condition for establishing causality?
What is a necessary condition for establishing causality?
Which of the following is a threat to study validity?
Which of the following is a threat to study validity?
What is the definition of a cause in the context of disease?
What is the definition of a cause in the context of disease?
When does an association imply causation?
When does an association imply causation?
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Study Notes
Evidence-Based Medicine
- Causality is a critical concept in evidence-based medicine.
Causality vs. Association
- Association is an identifiable relationship between an exposure and a disease, implying that the exposure might cause the disease.
- Causation implies a true mechanism that leads from exposure to disease.
- Association does not necessarily imply causation.
The Concept of Cause
- A cause is an event, condition, or characteristic that plays an important role in producing a disease.
- A cause must precede the disease.
- Removing exposure can reduce the disease rate.
- It's not necessary to understand all causal factors to prevent disease.
Bradford-Hill Criteria
- Strength: Is the risk so large that other factors can be ruled out?
- Consistency: Have the results been replicated by different researchers and under different conditions?
- Specificity: Is the exposure associated with a very specific disease?
- Temporality: Did the exposure precede the disease?
- Biological gradient: Are increasing exposures associated with increasing risks of disease?
- Plausibility: Is there a credible scientific mechanism that can explain the association?
- Coherence: Is the association consistent with the natural history of the disease?
- Experimental evidence: Does a physical intervention show results consistent with the association?
Strength of Association
- Strong associations are less likely to be caused by chance or bias.
- A strong association is one in which the relative risk is high (>1) or low (<1).
Examples of Causality
- Cigarette smoking causes lung cancer.
- HIV causes AIDS.
- Certain tampons cause toxic shock syndrome.
- Air pollution causes asthma.
- Zika virus causes microcephaly.
- SARS-Cov2 causes Covid-19.
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