Carbohydrates Overview Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What are the primary components of proteins?

C, H, O, and sometimes sulfur or phosphate (correct)

C, H, O, and metals

C, O, H, and nitrogen

C, N, H, and oxygen

Which type of bond connects amino acids in a protein?

Peptide bond (correct)

Ionic bond

Disulfide bond

Hydrogen bond

Which polysaccharide is primarily found in the cell walls of plants?

Amylopectin

Chitin

Cellulose (correct)

Glycogen

What is the process called that combines carbohydrate monomers into polymers?

Dehydration Synthesis Signup and view all the answers

Which storage polysaccharide is found in animals and is highly branched?

Glycogen Signup and view all the answers

What type of amino acid side chain would likely be found in polar molecules?

Charged -ve Signup and view all the answers

What is the major function of polysaccharides?

For energy storage and structure Signup and view all the answers

What process is used to break polymers apart into smaller molecules?

Hydrolysis Signup and view all the answers

What type of bond forms between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another during protein formation?

Peptide bond Signup and view all the answers

Which protein structure level describes the unique sequence of amino acids?

Primary structure Signup and view all the answers

What type of interaction primarily stabilizes secondary protein structures such as alpha helices and beta sheets?

Hydrogen bonds Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT directly affect protein denaturation?

Concentration of lipids Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides?

Purines and Pyrimidines Signup and view all the answers

Which sugar is found in RNA nucleotides?

Ribose Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bond links together the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the sugar of another in a polynucleotide chain?

Covalent bond Signup and view all the answers

What structure forms when two or more polypeptide chains combine?

Quaternary structure Signup and view all the answers

What is the oxidation number of hydrogen in most compounds?

1 Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the function of buffers in living systems?

They resist significant changes in pH. Signup and view all the answers

What is the oxidation number of oxygen in most compounds, excluding peroxides?

-2 Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during neutralization reactions?

Acids and bases react to produce salt and water. Signup and view all the answers

What type of ionization is associated with weak acids and bases?

Partial ionization. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of carbonic acid in the bloodstream?

It acts as a buffer in pH regulation. Signup and view all the answers

What defines Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases?

Acids donate protons; bases accept protons. Signup and view all the answers

What type of sugar is found in RNA?

Ribose Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following types of RNA is responsible for carrying amino acids to the ribosome?

tRNA Signup and view all the answers

What structural characteristic distinguishes saturated fatty acids from unsaturated fatty acids?

Presence of double bonds Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of triglycerides in the body?

Energy storage Signup and view all the answers

How are phospholipids structured in relation to their hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties?

Glycerol and phosphate are hydrophilic and fatty acids are hydrophobic. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of fatty acids have the hydrogen atoms on opposite sides of the double bond?

Trans fatty acids Signup and view all the answers

What condition results from having too much triglyceride in the blood?

Hypertriglyceridemia Signup and view all the answers

Which nitrogenous bases pair together in DNA and how many hydrogen bonds do they form?

Guanine and Cytosine; 3 bonds Signup and view all the answers

What process directly uses ATP to move molecules across a cell membrane?

Active transport Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes phagocytosis?

Cell eating Signup and view all the answers

What role does the Golgi apparatus play in the cell?

Processing and sorting proteins Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

Role in lipid metabolism Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily responsible for the production of ribosomes?

Nucleolus Signup and view all the answers

What are transport vesicles primarily involved in?

Transport of materials between organelles Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of vacuoles in a cell?

Providing specialized environments for biochemical processes Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following processes involves the removal of large macromolecules from the cell?

Exocytosis Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Carbohydrates

Used for storing energy and important during synthesis reactions
Monosaccharides are simple sugars
Disaccharides are formed by glycosidic links between two monosaccharides
Disaccharides are formed via condensation and broken down during hydrolysis
Polysaccharides are long chains of α1-4 or α1-6 glycosidic linked sugars
Polysaccharides can be branched or unbranched
More branches in a polysaccharide means more solubility
Storage polysaccharides include amylose, amylopectin, and glycogen
Amylose is a long chain of α1-4 chains in plant starch
Amylopectin is a long chain of α1-4 chains with 1-6 branched links
Glycogen is found in animals and is highly branched compared to amylopectin. It is stored in liver and muscle cells
Structural polysaccharides include cellulose and chitin
Cellulose is the most abundant in cell walls and has β glucose with long chains of β1-4 links
Chitin is modified glucose in exoskeletons and fungi cell walls. It is composed of glucosamine
Dehydration synthesis combines carbohydrate monomers into polymers
Hydrolysis breaks polymers apart into smaller molecules by adding water

Proteins + Amino Acids

Proteins are important macromolecules with numerous functions, including building blocks of cellular growth, components of antibodies, building enzymes, bodily fluids, hormones, structures and movement, and cellular transport
Proteins contain C, H, and O, and sometimes S or P
A peptide bond is a long polymer chain joined by a peptide bond between a carbon and nitrogen.
Amino Acids are the monomers of proteins. There are 20 amino acids, 8 of which humans can't produce.
Each amino acid consists of a central carbon (α carbon) bound to a carboxyl group, an amino group, a hydrogen, and a side chain.
Side chains can be non-polar, polar, hydrophobic, hydrophilic, charged (+ve), charged (-ve), basic, and acidic.
These characteristics affect how amino acids interact with one another.
A polypeptide is a peptide bond between 2 amino acids that has two functional groups.
In longer polypeptides, there are repeated chains.
Polypeptides are formed via condensation (dehydration synthesis) between the amino group of one acid and the carboxyl group on the other. The ribosome is responsible for the linkage
As multiple acids link up, they will interact, changing the polypeptide from a chain to other contortions
Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids, which is unique to a specific protein. It consists of covalent bonds between groups.
Secondary structure is interactions with amino acids that form hydrogen bonds. Coils (helix) and pleated sheets (β sheets) form depending on the acid and side chains.
Tertiary structure is fewer regular formations caused by side chain interactions. They include hydrophobic/philic, H-bonds, ionic/covalent bonds, and disulfide bridges.
Quaternary structure is uncommon and involves two or more polypeptide chains coming together to form a functional protein, such as hemoglobin.
Denaturing is a change in a protein’s shape and conformation.
Temperature affects H-bonding, causing a polypeptide to unfold.
pH affects charges on carboxyl and amino groups, affecting the solubility and shape of the protein. Different proteins function at different pHs.
Salinity (salt concentration) affects charged amino and carboxyl groups

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are large biological molecules, named for the DNA found in the nucleus.
Nucleic acids function in storing (DNA), transmitting (mRNA), processing (ribozymes) genetic information, protein synthesis, and metabolism.
Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids, consisting of a nitrogen base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.
Nitrogen bases include purines and pyrimidines.
Purines are nitrogen-containing ring-shaped molecules with two rings (adenine and guanine).
Pyrimidines are ring-shaped molecules containing nitrogen with one ring (thymine, cytosine, and uracil).
Pentose sugar consists of five carbons. Ribose and deoxyribose are sugars present in nucleotides. The hydroxyl of carbon-1 binds to the nitrogenous base.
Phosphate groups attach to the 5' carbon on the pentose sugar.
Polynucleotides are formed by covalent bonds between nucleotides. The phosphate group of one nucleotide bonds to the 3' sugar of the next nucleotide via a phosphodiester linkage.
Nitrogenous bases stick out from the backbone, forming the rungs of the ladder.
Nucleotide sequences are variable, inherited, and specific.
DNA is deoxyribose nucleic acid. It is used to store genetic information, which is turned into proteins.
DNA is formed by two polypeptide chains where the nitrogenous bases form H-bonds with each other. The sugar is deoxyribose. G-C forms three H-bonds, and A-T bind to make two H-bonds.
Since bases don't stick out, the two chains go in opposite directions to fit, forming a double helix.
RNA is ribonucleic acid.
Ribose is the sugar and uracil is the base in RNA.
RNA is single-stranded (double-stranded for viruses).
mRNA (messenger) carries the coding sequence from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
tRNA (transfer) carries amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis.
rRNA (ribosomal) is found in ribosomes and helps the catalytic sites for translation.
RNA is less stable than DNA due to the ribose sugar

Lipids

Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds including fats, oils, hormones, and certain membrane compounds.
They are grouped together because they do not dissolve in water (hydrophobic).
Lipids function as hormones, energy storage, cell membranes, insulation, and surround nerve cells.
Examples of lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.
Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains found in certain lipids. Different fatty acids have different numbers of carbons and double bonds.
Fatty acids without double bonds are saturated.
Saturated acids are linear in structure, often come from animal sources, and are solid at room temperature.
Fatty acids with double bonds are unsaturated (mono or poly).
Unsaturated acids are bent in structure, often come from plant sources, and are liquid at room temperature.
Cis indicates the hydrogen atoms on the double bond are on the same side.
Trans indicates the hydrogen atoms on the double bond are on different sides.
Trans fatty acids are rare in natural sources, are linear, and come from industrial processing of hydrogenating oils. Humans cannot produce trans fats.
Triglycerides are used for energy storage and are found in the blood and stored in adipose cells that make body fat. They are released by hormones to give energy between meals.
Hypertriglyceridemia occurs when more calories are consumed than burned, and there is too much triglyceride in the blood.
Glycerol is an ester molecule with two fatty acids and an alcohol.
Phospholipids are two fatty acids connected to a glycerol plus a phosphate group plus a variable head.
Both phosphate and glycerol are hydrophilic (polar). The fatty acids are uncharged, nonpolar, and hydrophobic.

Oxidation Numbers

The oxidation number of a free element is 0.
The oxidation number for a monatomic ion is the charge on the ion.
The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1.
The oxidation number of oxygen is -2 (-1 for peroxide).
For polyatomic ions, the sum of the oxidation numbers in the ion equals the charge on the ion.
Elements in groups 1 and 2, and aluminum, are indicated on the periodic table.

Acid and Bases

Water dissociation: Pure water only contains H2O molecules that occasionally react with each other.
Hydronium (H3O+) gives rise to an acidic solution.
Acidic solutions are sour, turn blue litmus paper red, and conduct electricity.
Acids are substances that increase H3O+ concentration when dissolved in water and have at least one ionizable H-atom in their chemical structure.
Hydroxide (OH-) has properties of a basic solution.
Basic solutions are bitter, turn red litmus paper blue, conduct electricity, and are slippery.
Bases are substances that increase OH- concentration in a solution
Ionic bases are formed by disassociating in water to produce OH- directly
Other bases are formed by combining with H+ from water directly.
Both acids and bases can be classified as strong or weak due to the degree of ionization upon dissolving in water. Strong acids and bases will dissolve completely, while weak acids and bases will dissolve partially.
Weak acids and bases tend to be reversible. When opposing reactions occur at equal rates, the reaction is in equilibrium.
Neutralization is a reaction that occurs when an acid is mixed with a base to produce salt and water.
pH is a measure of the acidity of a solution. It is expressed in terms of H3O+ concentration. 7 is neutral.
Blood pH: When H+ ions enter the bloodstream, the carbonic acid ions react with H+, producing bicarbonate. If a base enters the bloodstream, taking away the H+ ions (protons), carbonic acid ionizes to replace the missing H+ ions.
Carbonic acid is the most important buffer in human extracellular fluid. It produces CO2 when reacting with H2O.
Buffers resist significant changes in pH. Living systems usually consist of conjugate acid-base pairing in equilibrium.
Brønsted-Lowry acids are substances that transfer protons (H+ ions) to another substance (proton donors).
Brønsted-Lowry bases are substances that can accept protons from another substance (proton acceptors).

Membrane Transport

Primary active transport: A cellular process that uses ATP directly to move molecules from one side of the membrane to another.
Secondary active transport: Uses an electrochemical gradient as a source of energy to transport molecules across a cell membrane against the gradient.
Endocytosis: a cell engulfs material by folding the cell membrane around it and then pinching off to form a vesicle inside the cell.
- Phagocytosis: cell eating.
- Pinocytosis: cell drinking.
- Receptor-mediated endocytosis: receptors.
Exocytosis: allows large macromolecules to leave the cell via vesicles containing the cell’s waste or extra content.

Cell Organelles

Nucleus: A membrane-bound structure containing the cell’s heredity information. It controls growth and reproduction.
Nucleolus: Site of rRNA transcription and processing ribosome activity. Cells require large numbers of ribosomes to meet the needs of protein synthesis (5-10 million).
Ribosomes: Production of proteins. Large macromolecules with 2/3 RNA and 1/3 protein. They read the nucleotide sequences of mRNA into protein sequences via the genetic code.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): composed of branching tubes and flat sacs extending through the cytosol. Takes up ½ the membrane and the ER lumen space occupies 10% of the cell volume. The ER membrane separates the lumen from the cytosol and mediates the transfer of molecules between the two compartments.
- Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes and isn’t as common in cells. Contains the ER exit site for vesicles containing new proteins and lipids, (more evident in cells that prioritize lipid metabolism).
- Rough ER: Covered with ribosomes. Processes and produces proteins to be exported from the cell. Amino acids are folded into 3D displays, then chemicals (carbohydrates) are added, and finally transported.
Golgi apparatus: Flat membrane-enclosed sacs (cisternae) and vesicles. Processes proteins from the ER to be sorted, processed, or transported to destinations. Proteins from the ER enter the cis face, then go to the Golgi, and exit via the transface. Glycolipids and sphingomyelin for animal cells are processed here.
Vesicles: Transport vesicles play a role in molecule traffic between different membrane-enclosed compartments, transporting materials taken up at the cell’s surface and are key to organization.
Vacuoles: Membrane-bound organelles that provide specialized environments for biochemical and biophysical processes essential for cellular function.

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Description

Test your knowledge on carbohydrates, their structure, and functions. This quiz covers monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides, including their roles in energy storage and biological synthesis. Explore the differences between amylose, amylopectin, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.