Carbohydrates and Their Components

Biomolecules

• Triglycerides function as an energy source for the body.
• Enzymes are characterized by their high specificity and ability to speed up chemical reactions.
• Saturated fatty acids have single bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
• Phospholipids are important components of cell membranes due to their amphipathic nature, having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends.

Proteins

• The levels of structural organization of proteins are primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
• Proteins are made up of amino acids.
• They can have two shapes: globular and fibrous.
• Functions of proteins include catalysis, regulation, transport, and structural roles.

Nucleic Acids

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) differ in their sugar molecules, with DNA containing deoxyribose and RNA containing ribose.
• Uracil is found in RNA but not in DNA.
• Ribose is found in RNA but not in DNA.
• mRNA (messenger RNA) carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome.
• tRNA (transfer RNA) brings amino acids to the ribosome.
• rRNA (ribosomal RNA) makes up a large part of the ribosome.

Chemistry Fundamentals

• An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.
• The majority of the human body is composed of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen.
• Atomic number represents the number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
• Mass number represents the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.
• An ion is an atom or group of atoms with a net electric charge.
• A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together.
• Valence shell is the outermost energy level of an atom.
• A chemical bond is the attractive force between atoms that holds them together.

Chemical Reactions and Energy

• Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons between atoms.
• The Law of Conservation of Mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed, only converted.
• The three types of energy are kinetic, potential, and thermal.
• A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed.
• The five types of chemical reactions are synthesis, decomposition, substitution, acid-base, and oxidation-reduction.
• Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen, while inorganic compounds do not.
• Water has high thermal properties due to its high specific heat capacity.

ATP and Cellular Respiration

• ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a molecule that provides energy for cellular processes.
• ATP is created through cellular respiration, which involves the breakdown of glucose to produce energy.
• The two phases of cellular respiration are glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.
• ATP is made up of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups.
• The enzyme for ATP is ATP synthase.

Mutations and Acid-Base Chemistry

• A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of an organism.
• Mutations can cause changes in the structure and function of proteins.
• Hydrolysis is the reaction of a molecule with water, resulting in the breakdown of the molecule.
• Dehydration is the reverse of hydrolysis, where a molecule loses water to form a new compound.
• A substance is an acid if it donates a proton (H+).
• On the pH scale, acidic numbers are below 7, neutral is 7, and basic numbers are above 7.
• A buffer system is a solution that resists changes in pH.