Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which type of mutation is primarily responsible for inherited cancer susceptibility, such as in BRCA1 and BRCA2?
Which type of mutation is primarily responsible for inherited cancer susceptibility, such as in BRCA1 and BRCA2?
- Somatic mutations
- Acquired mutations
- Inborn zygotic mutations (correct)
- Translocations
What environmental factor is known to contribute to the aetiology of cancer?
What environmental factor is known to contribute to the aetiology of cancer?
- Genetic predisposition
- Viral immunity
- Antioxidant intake
- Radiation exposure (correct)
Which gene is involved in the development of childhood cancers such as Wilm's tumour?
Which gene is involved in the development of childhood cancers such as Wilm's tumour?
- RB
- p53
- 11p13 (correct)
- APC
What combination of factors is characteristic of an abnormal tissue microenvironment in cancer?
What combination of factors is characteristic of an abnormal tissue microenvironment in cancer?
Which of the following conditions is most directly associated with mutations in the p53 gene?
Which of the following conditions is most directly associated with mutations in the p53 gene?
What is a key distinguishing feature of malignant cells compared to benign growth disorders?
What is a key distinguishing feature of malignant cells compared to benign growth disorders?
Which of the following best describes the aetiology of malignant disease?
Which of the following best describes the aetiology of malignant disease?
Which of these characteristics is generally NOT associated with malignant tumors?
Which of these characteristics is generally NOT associated with malignant tumors?
What role does the eukaryotic cell cycle play in the development of cancer?
What role does the eukaryotic cell cycle play in the development of cancer?
Which approach is least effective in diagnosing malignant disease?
Which approach is least effective in diagnosing malignant disease?
Which statement best describes the mechanism responsible for tumor progression in malignant disease?
Which statement best describes the mechanism responsible for tumor progression in malignant disease?
What is the significance of understanding risk factors associated with certain types of cancer?
What is the significance of understanding risk factors associated with certain types of cancer?
Which characteristic is NOT associated with malignant cells?
Which characteristic is NOT associated with malignant cells?
What role does telomerase play in malignant cells?
What role does telomerase play in malignant cells?
Which mechanism do malignant cells employ to survive in ectopic environments?
Which mechanism do malignant cells employ to survive in ectopic environments?
Which of the following is a hallmark of cancer related to blood vessel formation?
Which of the following is a hallmark of cancer related to blood vessel formation?
What is a significant effect of malignant cells being insensitive to growth inhibitory signals?
What is a significant effect of malignant cells being insensitive to growth inhibitory signals?
Which characteristic best describes the anchorage-independent growth of malignant cells?
Which characteristic best describes the anchorage-independent growth of malignant cells?
How do malignant cells exhibit insensitivity to inhibitory signals?
How do malignant cells exhibit insensitivity to inhibitory signals?
Which of the following conditions is primarily associated with sustained angiogenesis in malignant cells?
Which of the following conditions is primarily associated with sustained angiogenesis in malignant cells?
Which process allows malignant cells to colonize new tissues?
Which process allows malignant cells to colonize new tissues?
What characteristic is NOT typically associated with dysplastic nevi?
What characteristic is NOT typically associated with dysplastic nevi?
Which of the following statements best describes dysplasia?
Which of the following statements best describes dysplasia?
How do dysplastic nevi change as they develop?
How do dysplastic nevi change as they develop?
What does the presence of rete ridge bridging indicate in dysplastic nevi?
What does the presence of rete ridge bridging indicate in dysplastic nevi?
What is the primary risk associated with having dysplastic nevi?
What is the primary risk associated with having dysplastic nevi?
What distinguishes hypertrophy from hyperplasia?
What distinguishes hypertrophy from hyperplasia?
Which of the following is a potential morphological feature of dysplasia?
Which of the following is a potential morphological feature of dysplasia?
What underlying mechanism is primarily involved in the process of hypertrophy?
What underlying mechanism is primarily involved in the process of hypertrophy?
Which statement best characterizes the relationship between dysplastic nevi and skin cancer?
Which statement best characterizes the relationship between dysplastic nevi and skin cancer?
What characterizes the ability of cancer cells compared to normal cells in terms of growth?
What characterizes the ability of cancer cells compared to normal cells in terms of growth?
Which process involves the spread of cancer cells through the lymphatic system?
Which process involves the spread of cancer cells through the lymphatic system?
Which hallmark of cancer could be associated with solitary dormant cells referred to in the content?
Which hallmark of cancer could be associated with solitary dormant cells referred to in the content?
Which stage of cancer progression involves cancer cells penetrating blood vessels?
Which stage of cancer progression involves cancer cells penetrating blood vessels?
What is a key mechanism through which tumors gain blood supply to sustain themselves?
What is a key mechanism through which tumors gain blood supply to sustain themselves?
Which characteristic is NOT typically associated with cancer cells when compared to normal cells?
Which characteristic is NOT typically associated with cancer cells when compared to normal cells?
In cancer progression, what indicates advanced metastatic potential?
In cancer progression, what indicates advanced metastatic potential?
Which term best describes the spread of cancer cells via bloodstream after entering the circulatory system?
Which term best describes the spread of cancer cells via bloodstream after entering the circulatory system?
What defines the anchorage-independent growth capability in cancer cells?
What defines the anchorage-independent growth capability in cancer cells?
What does the term 'occult micrometastases' refer to in cancer biology?
What does the term 'occult micrometastases' refer to in cancer biology?
Flashcards
Benign growth
Benign growth
A type of growth that is abnormal but does not spread to other parts of the body.
Malignant disease
Malignant disease
A type of growth that is abnormal and has the ability to spread to other parts of the body.
Aetiology of malignant disease
Aetiology of malignant disease
The factors that contribute to the development of malignant diseases.
Risk factors for cancer
Risk factors for cancer
Factors that increase the risk of developing a specific type of cancer.
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Mechanisms of malignant disease
Mechanisms of malignant disease
The processes by which malignant disease develops.
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Clinical effects of tumors
Clinical effects of tumors
The effects of tumors on the body.
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Diagnosis and treatment of malignant disease
Diagnosis and treatment of malignant disease
Methods used to identify and treat malignant diseases.
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Metaplasia
Metaplasia
A mature differentiated cell type changes into another mature differentiated cell type.
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Dysplasia
Dysplasia
Abnormal development, alteration in the size, shape, and organization of adult cells.
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Dysplastic nevi (DN)
Dysplastic nevi (DN)
Atypical moles that are larger than ordinary moles, have irregular shape and tend to have uneven colour; they usually begin as flat, but parts may raise above the skin surface.
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Rete ridge bridging
Rete ridge bridging
Epidermal thickenings that extend downward between dermal papillae, a feature of dysplastic nevi.
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Hypertrophy
Hypertrophy
An increase in the size of an organ due to an increase in cell size without an increase in cell number.
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Hyperplasia
Hyperplasia
An increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue.
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Neoplasia
Neoplasia
Abnormal cell growth.
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Benign neoplasia
Benign neoplasia
Abnormal cell growth that is not cancerous.
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Malignant neoplasia
Malignant neoplasia
Abnormal cell growth that is cancerous.
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Growth signal autonomy in cancer
Growth signal autonomy in cancer
Cancer cells are able to grow without needing external growth signals. They become self-sufficient in their growth.
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Resistance to apoptosis in cancer
Resistance to apoptosis in cancer
Cancer cells are not able to be killed by natural cell death (apoptosis), which allows them to continue growing indefinitely.
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Unlimited replicative potential in cancer
Unlimited replicative potential in cancer
Cancer cells can keep dividing indefinitely, unlike normal cells, because they have the means to maintain their telomeres, the protective caps of chromosomes.
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Sustained angiogenesis in cancer
Sustained angiogenesis in cancer
Cancer cells can create new blood vessels to supply themselves with nutrients and oxygen, helping them grow larger.
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Invasion in cancer
Invasion in cancer
Cancer cells break away from their original location and invade surrounding tissue
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Metastasis in cancer
Metastasis in cancer
New cancer cells can start new colonies in other parts of the body, forming secondary tumors.
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Anchorage-independent growth in cancer
Anchorage-independent growth in cancer
Cancer cells can grow even when they don't have a solid surface to attach to, allowing them to spread more easily.
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Loss of contact inhibition in cancer
Loss of contact inhibition in cancer
Cancer cells lose their sensitivity to contact inhibition, allowing them to grow in a disorganized and uncontrolled manner.
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Autocrine signaling loop in cancer
Autocrine signaling loop in cancer
Cancer cells create a loop where they release growth factors that stimulate their own growth, leading to uncontrolled proliferation.
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Ligand-independent signaling in cancer
Ligand-independent signaling in cancer
Cancer cells can activate their growth pathways even without a growth factor signal, promoting continuous growth.
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In situ cancer
In situ cancer
A type of cancer that remains confined to its original site. It has not spread to other parts of the body.
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Invasion of the tumor border
Invasion of the tumor border
The process by which cancer cells invade surrounding tissues and break through the basement membrane.
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Anchorage-independent growth in vitro
Anchorage-independent growth in vitro
The ability of cancer cells to grow and multiply without the need for attachment to a solid surface, like a petri dish.
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Intravasation
Intravasation
The process by which cancer cells enter the bloodstream from the primary tumor.
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Lymphatic spread
Lymphatic spread
The spread of cancer cells through the lymphatic system.
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Extravasation
Extravasation
The process by which cancer cells exit the bloodstream and establish a new tumor in a distant site from the original tumor.
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Occult micrometastases
Occult micrometastases
Tiny, isolated clusters of cancer cells that have spread from the primary tumor but have not yet caused any noticeable symptoms.
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Angiogenesis
Angiogenesis
The development of new blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to a growing tumor.
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Contact inhibition
Contact inhibition
A characteristic of normal cells that prevents them from growing and dividing uncontrollably. Cancer cells lose this property and divide without restraint.
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Inborn zygotic mutations
Inborn zygotic mutations
Genetic changes, like mutations in genes like BRCA1 and BRCA2, that increase a person's chance of developing cancer.
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Somatic mutations
Somatic mutations
Changes in genes that occur after birth, in specific cells, which can contribute to the development of cancer.
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Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS)
Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS)
A condition where a person has an increased risk of developing various cancers due to a mutation in the p53 gene.
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Chronic myelogenous leukaemia (CML)
Chronic myelogenous leukaemia (CML)
A type of cancer where a specific gene rearrangement, called the Philadelphia chromosome, causes the disease.
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p53 gene
p53 gene
A gene that plays a key role in regulating cell growth and preventing cancer, often mutated in cancer.
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Learning Outcomes
- Distinguish benign and malignant growth disorders
- Describe malignant cell characteristics
- Discuss the causes of malignant disease, relating specific risk factors to cancer types
- Explain mechanisms responsible for malignant disease
- Understand the clinical effects of tumors
- Assess approaches for diagnosing & treating malignant disease
Learning Resources
- Lakhani, S.R., Dilly, S.A., Finlayson, C.J. (2016) Basic Pathology: an introduction to the mechanisms of disease. CRC Press (e-book)
- Weinberg, R.A. (2014). The Biology of Cancer. Garland Science
- Other relevant journals, articles & websites
Revision Reading
- Chapter 16: Eukaryotic cell cycle, mitosis, and meiosis in Thrive in Cell Biology (2013), Wang Q. et al., Oxford University Press
- Chapter 17: Cell death in Thrive in Cell Biology (2013), Wang Q. et al., Oxford University Press
- Moodle URL link: e-book: Chapter: Cancer cell biology
What is Cancer?
- Cancer is a cellular issue in multicellular organisms
- Cells develop abnormal properties
- Cancer is a collection of various diseases
- Cancer's core feature is uncontrolled growth
Characteristics of Malignant Cells
- Loss of growth control (autonomy; insensitivity to inhibitory signals)
- Resistance to programmed cell death (apoptosis)
- Unlimited replicative potential (telomeres, telomerase)
- Sustained angiogenesis (blood vessel formation)
- Ability to invade surrounding tissue
- Ability to colonize and survive in different environments (metastasis)
- Anchorage-independent growth and lose contact inhibition sensitivity
Causes of Cancer (Aetiology)
- Mutations (inborn zygotic, somatic)
- Environmental factors (viruses, chemicals, radiation)
- Abnormal tissue microenvironment (blood vessels, fibroblasts, immune cells, extracellular matrix and signaling)
- Hypoxia
- Age, lifestyle, etc.
Genetic Mutations & Cancer Risk
- Inborn/zygotic mutations, somatic mutations
- BRCA1/2, Li-Fraumeni syndrome (LFS), Wilm's tumor (del 11p13)
- Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), Philadelphia chromosome t(9;22)
- Retinoblastoma (RB), Familial adenomatous polyposis.
- Colorectal cancer (APC)
Cancer Diagnosis
- Physical examination (lumps, bleeding etc.)
- Screening (Pap smears)
- Routine tests (x-rays, blood tests)
- Imaging (CT, MRI, PET, ultrasound)
- Endoscopies
- Special investigations (markers like catecholamines)
- Biopsies (histology, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy)
- Genetic testing
Tumor Markers
- Substances found in bodily fluids, related to malignancy
- Screening, diagnosing, staging, monitoring, determining treatment approach
- (e.g., AFP, CA15-3, CA19-9, CA-125, calcitonin, GFAP, MyoD1, PSA, synaptophysin)
Cancer Cachexia
- Progressive skeletal muscle loss, adipose tissue waste, inflammation, metabolic changes, leading to reduced function
- Not dependent on tumor size, varies with tumor type and stage
- Chemotherapy/radiotherapy may worsen cachexia
Paraneoplastic Syndromes
- Symptoms explained by tumors not related to local or distant spread
- Examples: hypercalcemia, endocrine effects, clubbing, skin rashes, hypertrophic osteoarthropathy.
Clinical Effects of Tumors
- General effects, local effects, endocrine effects, paraneoplastic syndromes
Histogenetic Classification
- Carcinoma (epithelial origin)
- Sarcoma (connective tissue origin)
- Others (leukemia, lymphoma, neuroectodermal malignancies, germ tissue)
Management of Cancers
- Determined by tumour aggressiveness, spread predictability, treatment morbidity/mortality, curability
- Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, hormone therapy, radiotherapy, bone marrow transplants, targeted therapies
Chemotherapy
- A type of cancer treatment that uses drugs to kill/damage cancer cells
- Common side effects: infections, diarrhea, nausea, appetite loss, hair loss, anemia
Targeted Cancer Therapy
- Drugs/substances that interfere with specific molecules affecting tumor growth and progression
Proton Therapy
- Radiation therapy using protons, instead of x-rays, to target cancer
- May be used alone or combined with other treatments
HPV Vaccine
- Vaccine protecting against human papillomavirus (HPV) that can cause certain cancers
- Varies by country, includes target age groups and gender
Multi-Step Cancer Progression
- Tumours develop through multiple stages beginning from DNA damage.
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