Canadian History Quiz: Early European Exploration

Legacies of Historical Globalization in Canada

• Historical globalization in Canada had little to do with establishing colonies and much more to do with the idea of discovering a new route to Asia.
• Early exploration was primarily to find a quicker route to Asia's riches.
• Exploration of Canada began with John Cabot (1497) followed by Jacques Cartier in 1534.
• Early settlements in the 17th century were primarily focused on fish and fur trade.
• Indigenous peoples were crucial in helping Europeans in these efforts.

Key Terms

• Indian Act: Legislation to control Indigenous peoples' lives in Canada.
• Status Indian: A legal status recognized under the Indian Act.
• Residential Schools: Schools established to assimilate Indigenous children.
• Cultural Mosaic: A mix of ethnic groups and cultures that coexist.
• Multiculturalism: A policy that acknowledges and values cultural diversity.
• Cultural Pluralism: A concept that celebrates cultural differences and respects people's right to maintain their cultural traditions.
• Quiet Revolution: A period of social, economic, and political change in Quebec in the 1960s.

Early Exploration of Canada

• The first European exploration of Canada, focused on the idea of discovering a new, quicker route to Asia.
• The desire to discover a new and quicker route had little to do with establishing colonial outposts.
• Over a century passed before a semblance of permanent settlements were established in Canada by Europeans.
• The few settlements established by Europeans in the early 17th century were limited to fish and furs.
• European settlers relied heavily on Indigenous peoples to help obtain fish and furs.

The Genocide of the Beothuk

• The Beothuk people of Newfoundland were the first casualties of European colonialism in North America.
• Conflict over access to coastal fishing led to Europeans hunting and killing Beothuk, forcing them inland.
• Those who were not killed outright became malnourished and died of starvation and disease.
• All Beothuk were wiped out by 1829.

Indigenous Peoples and European Explorers

• Early settlements by Europeans were gradual and did not pose a major threat to Indigenous peoples.
• The harshness of the Canadian climate made European settlers reliant on Indigenous technology, teaching them survival skills, such as hunting, using canoes, and using snowshoes and toboggans.

British Control of Canada

• The competition between France and Britain resulted in the Seven Years' War (1754-1763), ending with the Battle of the Plains of Abraham.
• Britain gained control of a large territory of French-speaking citizens.
• Britain initially intended to assimilate the French through the Royal Proclamation Act of 1763 and encouraging British settlers to come to Quebec.

Accommodation Replaces Assimilation

• The large number of French people in Quebec made assimilation impossible.
• Concessions were necessary to ensure loyalty among the French population.
• The Quebec Act of 1774 recognized French language and culture rights within the framework of British rule.

The HBC (Hudson's Bay Company) and Mercantilism

• The Hudson's Bay Company focused their activities on coastal areas initially, relying on First Nations.
• Inland forts were later built due to competition with the Northwest Company.
• Aboriginal peoples were heavily involved in the fur trade, resulting in a trade with global implications.

The Legacy of Mercantilism

• Both France and Britain employed mercantilist policies in Canada to control raw material, ensuring it was processed/manufactured in their own countries.
• Mercantilism limited Canada's economic development to supplying raw materials.
• In western Canada, Aboriginal peoples were crucial for fur trade to coastal forts.

Political Changes

• The arrival of Europeans led to the dismantling of traditional chief-led and clan-based political systems.
• Aboriginal peoples began to rely on Europeans for trade and support, which made them politically dependent.
• The establishment of the band system, was an artificial creation of the government.

Economic Changes

• European arrival disrupted trade systems through introducing new technologies and materials.
• Declines in animal populations were a significant impact of European interactions with the land and animals.
• Indigenous ways of life were lost with an introduction of European economies.

Social Changes

• The hunting and gathering of furs shifted from a communal to a monetarily motivated activity, stimulating greed.
• Introduction of European money, impacted relationships between families, creating dependence on the system.
• Contact with different cultures led to the creation of a new people and culture, the Metis.
• Indigenous people experienced displacement from their traditional lands, and were often forced to work for the British or French.

Social Changes (Residential Schools)

• Traditional relationships with the land were disrupted by diseases, conflicts over resources, and displacement.
• The residential school system separated Indigenous children and often created intergenerational trauma.
• Separation of boys and girls in schools interrupted community and family-based cultural practices.
• Loss of language, disrupted communities, and cultural genocide.

Economic Changes (Residential Schools)

• Poverty was more widespread for Indigenous communities with poor housing conditions.
• The cost of government resources used was paid for from their land and resources.
• Indigenous people were often less likely to gain employment in later life.
• Loss of skills/knowledge, and forced labour in industrial settings and residential institutions, impacted economic opportunities.

Environmental Impact

• Overhunting led to declines in animal populations and the disruption of food chains.
• Indigenous peoples faced displacement as land use changed due to European activity and resource exploitation.
• Agricultural practices were introduced, leading to further environmental changes and an extinction of products, along with land disputes between groups.
• Manufacturing created pollution.

Post Confederation Canada

• After Confederation in 1867, the Canadian government started the process of westward expansion.
• This included gaining control of Rupert's land in 1869.
• First Nations relinquished their claims to land in exchange for resources, but often faced difficulties negotiating fairly in treaties.

The Numbered Treaties

• A series of treaties were signed between First Nations and the Canadian government between 1871 and 1921, often involving the cession of land in exchange for monetary compensation.
• First Nations were given parcels of land called reserves to maintain their traditional ways of life, though reserves were often less productive than the land ceded.
• Land negotiations were made difficult due to language and cultural differences, causing disputes and feelings of betrayal.

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP)

• Established in 1991 to investigate relations between the Canadian federal government and indigenous peoples.
• Investigated the concepts of a reciprocal and honest relationship between cultures.
• The Commission's 1996 final report found that the policies focused on assimilating Indigenous people had been fundamentally wrong.

Changing the Indian Act

• An effort to improve the Indian Act was made in 2002.
• Critics felt that the act did not adequately address the needs of Indigenous people.
• The Act still plays a role in Indigenous affairs today.

Residential Schools

• The residential school system aimed to assimilate Indigenous children into Canadian society.
• Children were often forcibly removed from their families and forced to attend schools.
• Schools were run by churches (Catholic, Anglican, and United), and the focus was to erase Indigenous culture and identity.
• The language of the children was often forbidden, resulting in the loss of their languages.

Effects on Survivors

• Possible 90% of students suffered sexual abuse.
• More than 50% of children did not survive to adulthood.
• 75% of residential school survivors reported alcohol abuse.
• A significant portion of residential school survivors also had criminal records.

Reconciliation

• A 1998 Statement of Reconciliation, including an apology from the government to survivors from residential schools.
• A compensation package ($1.9 billion) was part of the initiative.
• The Aboriginal Healing Foundation was established to create projects and provide monetary aid.

Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)

• The TRC was part of the Indian Residential School Settlement Agreement and further supported the reconciliation process.
• Their initiative worked to inform Canadians of the residential school experience.
• The TRC’s goal was to document the truth and impact of residential schools on all Canadians.

Canada and Multiculturalism

• Before the mid-20th century, immigration policy was largely based on race.
• The 1960's changed immigration expectations, and led to an increase of different immigrants to Canada.
• Canada became more accepting of immigrants, broadening the cultural mosaic composition of Canada.
• Multiculturalism was a policy and strategy to encourage diversity and maintain separate cultural identities while living together.

Backlash on Multiculturalism

• Some members of Canadian society felt that multiculturalism threatened “British cultural identity.”
• There was opposition from some Quebec citizens who thought multiculturalism undermined Quebec’s cultural identity.
• Despite opinions, a significant portion of Canadians supported multiculturalism.

On Diversity

• Canadian opinions lean strongly towards cultural diversity as being a positive aspect of society.
• American opinions show some support, but less support than Canada. Surveys show a difference in cultural opinions.

How Might Indigenous Peoples feel?

• Diverse feelings and opinions likely existed among Indigenous peoples regarding the nature of Canadian society and multiculturalism.

Internment Camps (German/Ukrainian)

• During WWI, more than 8,500 people were imprisoned.
• Conditions were harsh, and included forced labor in mines and road construction projects.
• The intent of internment was to remove those considered to be 'enemy aliens.'
• No apologies or significant compensation were provided to those imprisoned. A limited amount of money was allocated at a later date, for memorialization and education.

Internment Camps (Japanese)

• During WWII, Japanese Canadians were interned due to the bombing of Pearl Harbor.
• The government forced removal from the coast to the interior and prairie provinces, creating internal and external displacement.
• Possessions of Japanese Canadians were often confiscated.
• After the war, a compensation package was offered and an official apology was issued.

Legacies of Residential Schools (Page 40)

• Population decline, generational trauma from residential schools.
• Indigenous students experienced losses of language, culture, identity, and community.
• The political legacy involved government funding and their poor reputation.

Legacies of Residential Schools (Page 41)

• Loss of income, poor housing, and an increased risk of sickness.
• The financial costs of the schools.
• Indigenous people were less likely to be employed; and less likely to earn an income similar to non-Indigenous people.

Legacies of Residential Schools (Page 42)

• Schools were run by Christian Churches.
• Students lived on school premises, often separated from their families for extended periods.
• Loss of Indigenous language, culture and identity.

Legacies of Residential Schools (Page 43)

• Schools were established to deconstruct Indigenous culture and identity.
• Students were prohibited from speaking in their native languages.

Effects on Survivors

• Possible 90% of students suffered sexual abuse.
• More than 50% of survivors of residential school did not survive to adulthood.

What are the impacts of the Sixties Scoop?

• Difficulty creating healthy relationships
• Loss of identity, traditions, and language.
• Loss of self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and confusion.
• Substance abuse was common among survivors.
• The effects of the Scoop continued across generations (intergenerational trauma).