Branches of Chemistry

Inorganic Chemistry: Study of inorganic compounds, such as minerals, metals, and acids.
Organic Chemistry: Study of organic compounds, such as carbon-based compounds, including biomolecules.
Physical Chemistry: Study of the physical properties and behavior of matter at the molecular and atomic level.
Analytical Chemistry: Study of the analysis and identification of the chemical composition of substances.
Biochemistry: Study of the chemical processes that occur within living organisms.

Atomic Structure

Protons: Positively charged particles in the nucleus of an atom.
Neutrons: Particles in the nucleus of an atom with no charge.
Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom.
Atomic Number: Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, unique to each element.
Mass Number: Sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Chemical Bonding

Ionic Bonding: Transfer of electrons between atoms to form ions with opposite charges.
Covalent Bonding: Sharing of electrons between atoms to form a bond.
Polar Covalent Bonding: Unequal sharing of electrons between atoms, resulting in a partial positive and negative charge.
Hydrogen Bonding: Weak attractive forces between molecules, typically involving hydrogen atoms.

Chemical Reactions

Synthesis Reaction: Combination of two or more substances to form a new compound.
Decomposition Reaction: Breakdown of a single compound into two or more substances.
Replacement Reaction: One element replaces another element in a compound.
Combustion Reaction: Reaction between a substance and oxygen, resulting in heat and light.

Stoichiometry

Mole: Unit of measurement for the amount of a substance, equal to 6.022 x 10^23 particles.
Molar Mass: Mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams per mole (g/mol).
Empirical Formula: Simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.
Molecular Formula: Actual number of atoms in a molecule of a compound.

Acids and Bases

Arrhenius Theory: Acids are substances that donate H+ ions, and bases are substances that accept H+ ions.
Bronsted-Lowry Theory: Acids are substances that donate H+ ions, and bases are substances that accept H+ ions.
pH Scale: Measure of acidity, ranging from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic).

Branches of Chemistry

Inorganic Chemistry studies inorganic compounds, including minerals, metals, and acids, to understand their properties and reactions.
Organic Chemistry focuses on carbon-based compounds, including biomolecules, to explore their structure, function, and synthesis.
Physical Chemistry investigates the physical properties and behavior of matter at the molecular and atomic level, covering topics like thermodynamics and kinetics.
Analytical Chemistry is concerned with the analysis and identification of the chemical composition of substances, using techniques like chromatography and spectroscopy.
Biochemistry delves into the chemical processes that occur within living organisms, such as metabolism and DNA replication.

Atomic Structure

Protons are positively charged particles in the nucleus of an atom, determining the element's identity.
Neutrons have no charge and are found in the nucleus, contributing to the atom's mass.
Electrons are negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus, with energy levels and orbital shapes determining chemical behavior.
Atomic Number is the number of protons in the nucleus, unique to each element and determining its position in the periodic table.
Mass Number is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, giving the total mass of an atom.

Chemical Bonding

Ionic Bonding involves the transfer of electrons between atoms to form ions with opposite charges, resulting in a strong electrostatic attraction.
Covalent Bonding occurs when atoms share electrons to form a bond, with equal or unequal sharing leading to different bond types.
Polar Covalent Bonding is a type of covalent bond where electrons are shared unequally, resulting in a partial positive and negative charge.
Hydrogen Bonding is a weak attractive force between molecules, often involving hydrogen atoms, which plays a crucial role in biological systems.

Chemical Reactions

Synthesis Reactions combine two or more substances to form a new compound, often releasing energy.
Decomposition Reactions involve the breakdown of a single compound into two or more substances, often requiring energy input.
Replacement Reactions occur when one element replaces another element in a compound, following specific rules and patterns.
Combustion Reactions involve the reaction between a substance and oxygen, resulting in heat and light, with examples including burning fossil fuels.

Stoichiometry

A Mole is a unit of measurement for the amount of a substance, equivalent to 6.022 x 10^23 particles, facilitating calculations and conversions.
Molar Mass is the mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams per mole (g/mol), used to calculate quantities and concentrations.
Empirical Formula represents the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound, providing a concise representation of its composition.
Molecular Formula indicates the actual number of atoms in a molecule of a compound, giving a more detailed representation of its structure.

Acids and Bases

Arrhenius Theory defines acids as substances that donate H+ ions and bases as substances that accept H+ ions, providing a simple understanding of acid-base chemistry.
Bronsted-Lowry Theory expands on Arrhenius Theory, considering acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of acid-base reactions.
pH Scale measures acidity, ranging from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic), with a neutral pH of 7 representing equal concentrations of H+ and OH- ions.

Atomic Structure

Atomic models:
- Rutherford's model: nucleus at the center, surrounded by electrons
- Bohr's model: energy levels (shells) around the nucleus, with electrons jumping between them
- Quantum mechanical model: electrons occupy orbitals, with probabilistic locations
Subatomic particles:
- Protons: positively charged, found in the nucleus, determine atomic number
- Neutrons: no charge, found in the nucleus, contribute to mass number
- Electrons: negatively charged, found in energy levels, participate in bonding
Atomic number (Z): number of protons in an atom's nucleus, defines the element
Mass number (A): sum of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus, determines atomic mass

Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonds: attractive forces between atoms, formed by electron interactions
Types of bonds:
- Ionic bonds: electron transfer between atoms, resulting in oppositely charged ions (e.g., Na+ and Cl-)
- Covalent bonds: electron sharing between atoms, resulting in a molecule (e.g., H2O)
- Polar covalent bonds: unequal electron sharing, resulting in a partially positive and partially negative atom (e.g., HCl)
Bonding theories:
- Electron sea model: electrons move freely, forming a "sea" of electrons
- Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory: electron pairs arrange to minimize repulsion, predicting molecular shape

Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry: study of reactant and product quantities in chemical reactions
Mole (mol): unit of amount of substance, defined as 6.022 x 10^23 particles
Molar mass (M): mass of one mole of a substance, in grams per mole (g/mol)
Empirical formula: simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound
Molecular formula: actual number of atoms in a molecule, may be different from the empirical formula

Periodic Table

Periodic table: organized arrangement of elements by atomic number (Z)
Periods: horizontal rows, representing energy levels and shell number
Groups: vertical columns, representing similar chemical properties and electron configurations
Metals: typically found on the left side and center of the periodic table, tend to lose electrons to form ions
Nonmetals: typically found on the right side of the periodic table, tend to gain electrons to form ions
Metalloids: found on the border between metals and nonmetals, exhibit intermediate properties

Chemical Reactions

Chemical reaction: process in which one or more substances are converted into new substances
Types of reactions:
- Synthesis reactions: two or more substances combine to form a new substance (e.g., 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O)
- Decomposition reactions: one substance breaks down into two or more substances (e.g., 2H2O → 2H2 + O2)
- Replacement reactions: one element replaces another in a compound (e.g., Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu)
Reaction rates: speed at which a reaction occurs, influenced by factors such as concentration, temperature, surface area, and catalysts