Body Systems and Regional Anatomy Overview

Bone-joint inflammation is caused by imbalanced joint tissue repair/destruction/remodelling, mechanical factors, and metabolic factors.

Human teeth are unspecialized.

The bony pelvis is composed of hip bones and the sacrum.

Across different species, the lower limbs are generally used for locomotion.

In quadrupedal mammals, weight-bearing typically occurs on the lower limbs.

Increasing the length of distal limb segments increases the distance covered by a stride while running.

Histology is the study of the body's cells and tissues, and how tissues are organised into organs.

Histology studies healthy tissues, while pathology studies abnormal or diseased tissues.

The first step in tissue processing, involving obtaining fresh tissue.

Tissue fixation preserves the structure of the tissue.

Tissue dehydration removes water from the tissue.

Muscles attach to bones using tendons or aponeuroses. Contraction brings the attachment points closer together.

Tendons connect muscles to bones, whereas ligaments connect bones to bones. They're both fibrous tissues, but tendons allow movement and ligaments stabilize joints.

A muscle whose attachments are entirely within the same region of the body.

A muscle with one attachment point is within one area of the body, the other is in a different area.

Feather-like muscle fibers that attach to a tendon at an angle, increasing the number of fibers that can be packed into a given space.

Spindle-shaped muscle with a wider belly and tapered ends; allows for greater contraction.

Muscle with a broad origin and a narrow insertion; allows for varied contraction direction and a strong pull.

Muscle fibers arranged in concentric circles forming a sphincter around an opening.

Muscles with multiple heads (origins) or multiple bellies (muscle segments).

Collagen fibers that connect tendons and ligaments to bone, embedding into the periosteum.

Repetitive stress or excessive use of a muscle leading to injury.

The female gamete, a haploid cell containing 23 chromosomes, released from the ovaries.

The process where a sperm unites with an oocyte, forming a zygote.

A single cell formed after fertilization, containing a diploid set of 46 chromosomes (one set from each parent).

A protective layer surrounding the zygote, crucial for early development and preventing polyspermy (multiple sperm fertilizing the egg).

A series of rapid mitotic divisions the zygote undergoes while traveling down the fallopian tube.

A solid ball of cells formed during embryonic development (16-32 cells), resulting from the cleavage process.

A hollow ball of cells formed from the morula, consisting of the inner cell mass and trophoblast.

The inner group of cells within the blastocyst, which will give rise to the embryo and its supporting tissues (e.g., yolk sac).

The outer layer of cells in the blastocyst, that will form the placenta and other extra-embryonic tissues.

The process where the blastocyst embeds itself into the uterine wall.

The process forming the three primary germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) from the blastula's inner cell mass.

The three primary layers – ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm – formed during gastrulation, that give rise to all tissues of the body.

A temporary organ that develops during pregnancy and provides nutrients and oxygen to the growing fetus.

Forms the nervous system, skin, hair, and nails during embryonic development.

Creates bone, blood vessels, blood, heart, and muscles in embryos.

Develops into the epithelial lining of glands, respiratory, and GI tracts.

Established by cells in the node, creating a directional pattern in the embryo.

A cluster of cells with cilia (hair-like structures) that rotate the embryo, setting the left-right axis.

The process where the neural plate folds into a neural tube, forming the central nervous system.

Ectoderm thickens, folds, closes creating the hollow neural tube - precursor to CNS.

A signaling structure that influences development of the bottom half of the neural tube.

Form the peripheral nervous system and other structures like melanocytes (skin pigment).

Primary vesicles formed during development, differentiate to secondary brain vesicles.

Highly specialized body cells.

Less mature cells that can differentiate and replicate.

The process of a cell changing into another cell type.

Undifferentiated cells that can turn into many different cell types.

Ability of a cell to differentiate into different cell types.

Cells with the ability to differentiate into almost any cell type.

Stem cells derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst.

Stem cells found in developed organs.

Somatic cells reprogrammed to be pluripotent.

Cells that can differentiate into a limited number of cell types.

Stem cells that differentiate into various blood components.

Molecules stimulating cell differentiation and proliferation.

Proteins and genes that identify cell types.

Adding growth factors to stem cells can transform them into neurons.

The neural plate develops into definitive ectoderm, proliferating and forming layers.

Adding specific growth factors to stem cells influences cell proliferation and differentiation.

Understanding how cells communicate to guide migration, proliferation, and differentiation in development.

The development of specific structures and arrangements in the nervous system, using growth factors in development.

Growth factors can induce the development of sensory neurons from a source structure in the nervous system.

Growth factors can induce the development of motor neurons from a source structure in the nervous system.

Paired structures on either side of the body.

Structure present on only one side of the body.

Two structures on the same side of the body.

Two structures on opposite sides of the body.

Approximately the size of a large apple or fist, pear-shaped, marbled texture.

Wrinkled walnut-like appearance, soft pinkish cauliflower consistency.

Spongy balloon-like, pinkish-grey, branching bronchial tree.

Deflated balloon, bagpipe, or soft wrinkled leather pouch.

Bean-shaped, similar size to a smartphone, rubbery consistency.

Long bumpy tube, like a coiled hose, or a horseshoe shape.

Long, tightly coiled hose, like a bundle of cooked spaghetti.

Lumpy banana shape, fish fillet (wider head, narrow tail), like a long pine cone.

Small green pear-like, or deflated balloon.

Firm, elastic, thick-walled, larger than veins and nerves, often red.