Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following is NOT a primary function of blood?
Which of the following is NOT a primary function of blood?
- Transporting hormones to target organs.
- Regulating blood glucose levels through insulin secretion. (correct)
- Maintaining body temperature by redistributing heat.
- Protecting against infection via leukocytes and immune response.
Edema, an abnormal accumulation of fluid in body tissues, can result from a deficiency in which plasma protein?
Edema, an abnormal accumulation of fluid in body tissues, can result from a deficiency in which plasma protein?
- Nitrogenous substances
- Albumin (correct)
- Fibrinogen
- Globulins
Why is arterial blood typically a lighter, scarlet red compared to venous blood?
Why is arterial blood typically a lighter, scarlet red compared to venous blood?
- Arterial blood has a higher pH than venous blood.
- Arterial blood is more viscous due to a higher concentration of erythrocytes.
- Arterial blood contains a lower concentration of solutes.
- Arterial blood is saturated with more oxygen. (correct)
Which of the following components of blood is primarily responsible for initiating the process of blood clot formation when a blood vessel is damaged?
Which of the following components of blood is primarily responsible for initiating the process of blood clot formation when a blood vessel is damaged?
A patient's blood test reveals a hematocrit value of 52%. Based on the typical hematocrit ranges, this value is most likely indicative of:
A patient's blood test reveals a hematocrit value of 52%. Based on the typical hematocrit ranges, this value is most likely indicative of:
Which characteristic of erythrocytes is most directly related to their primary function of oxygen transport?
Which characteristic of erythrocytes is most directly related to their primary function of oxygen transport?
How do the lungs and urinary system work together to maintain blood pH?
How do the lungs and urinary system work together to maintain blood pH?
Why are blood cells short-lived and non-mitotic?
Why are blood cells short-lived and non-mitotic?
Which event directly follows the conversion of prothrombin into thrombin during coagulation?
Which event directly follows the conversion of prothrombin into thrombin during coagulation?
What is the primary role of thrombopoietin in hemostasis?
What is the primary role of thrombopoietin in hemostasis?
What is the most immediate effect of vascular spasm in response to blood vessel injury?
What is the most immediate effect of vascular spasm in response to blood vessel injury?
How is the activity of platelets prevented in an undamaged blood vessel?
How is the activity of platelets prevented in an undamaged blood vessel?
What is the fundamental difference between a thrombus and an embolus?
What is the fundamental difference between a thrombus and an embolus?
What is the primary function of Factor XIII in the coagulation process?
What is the primary function of Factor XIII in the coagulation process?
Which of the following best describes the role of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) in blood clot repair?
Which of the following best describes the role of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) in blood clot repair?
How does plasmin contribute to the resolution of blood clots?
How does plasmin contribute to the resolution of blood clots?
Why would a patient with thrombocytopenia be at risk of severe hemorrhage from a minor injury?
Why would a patient with thrombocytopenia be at risk of severe hemorrhage from a minor injury?
How do hemophilia A and hemophilia B differ in terms of clotting factor deficiency?
How do hemophilia A and hemophilia B differ in terms of clotting factor deficiency?
How does chronic leukemia differ from acute leukemia in terms of disease progression?
How does chronic leukemia differ from acute leukemia in terms of disease progression?
Which of the following describes the role of megakaryocytes in hemostasis?
Which of the following describes the role of megakaryocytes in hemostasis?
What is the primary functional difference between pulmonary arteries and pulmonary veins?
What is the primary functional difference between pulmonary arteries and pulmonary veins?
In the context of leukemia classification, what distinguishes myeloid leukemia from lymphocyte leukemia?
In the context of leukemia classification, what distinguishes myeloid leukemia from lymphocyte leukemia?
What is the most likely consequence of a large embolus obstructing a blood vessel in the brain?
What is the most likely consequence of a large embolus obstructing a blood vessel in the brain?
A patient with type B blood requires a transfusion. Which blood type would trigger an immune response due to the presence of anti-A antibodies in the patient's blood?
A patient with type B blood requires a transfusion. Which blood type would trigger an immune response due to the presence of anti-A antibodies in the patient's blood?
An individual with type O blood is considered a universal donor. Why can this blood type be transfused into individuals with other ABO blood types without causing a transfusion reaction?
An individual with type O blood is considered a universal donor. Why can this blood type be transfused into individuals with other ABO blood types without causing a transfusion reaction?
Why is it critical to match Rh blood groups during transfusions, especially for Rh-negative individuals?
Why is it critical to match Rh blood groups during transfusions, especially for Rh-negative individuals?
A patient with type AB+ blood requires a transfusion. Considering both ABO and Rh factors, which blood type(s) can this patient safely receive?
A patient with type AB+ blood requires a transfusion. Considering both ABO and Rh factors, which blood type(s) can this patient safely receive?
How does the ability of leukocytes to leave blood vessels via capillary walls contribute to their function in the immune system?
How does the ability of leukocytes to leave blood vessels via capillary walls contribute to their function in the immune system?
What is the primary function of histamine released by basophils during an immune response?
What is the primary function of histamine released by basophils during an immune response?
In what way do T-lymphocytes (T-cells) and Natural Killer (NK) cells collaborate to defend the body?
In what way do T-lymphocytes (T-cells) and Natural Killer (NK) cells collaborate to defend the body?
How do monocytes contribute to the immune response after they leave the bloodstream and differentiate into macrophages?
How do monocytes contribute to the immune response after they leave the bloodstream and differentiate into macrophages?
What is the role of interleukins and colony-stimulating factors in leukopoiesis?
What is the role of interleukins and colony-stimulating factors in leukopoiesis?
How is positive chemotaxis beneficial in the function of neutrophils?
How is positive chemotaxis beneficial in the function of neutrophils?
If a patient is diagnosed with leukemia and it's impacting the red marrow, how does this affect the other components of the blood?
If a patient is diagnosed with leukemia and it's impacting the red marrow, how does this affect the other components of the blood?
What is the role of B-lymphocytes (B-cells) in humoral immunity?
What is the role of B-lymphocytes (B-cells) in humoral immunity?
Why are individuals with allergies more likely to involve an overreaction of basophils?
Why are individuals with allergies more likely to involve an overreaction of basophils?
What is the difference between myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells in leukocyte differentiation?
What is the difference between myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells in leukocyte differentiation?
Unlike other leukocytes, eosinophils have digestive enzymes. With their digestive enzymes, how do they kill parasites?
Unlike other leukocytes, eosinophils have digestive enzymes. With their digestive enzymes, how do they kill parasites?
If a patient has a dysfunctional mitral valve, where would regurgitation of blood most likely occur?
If a patient has a dysfunctional mitral valve, where would regurgitation of blood most likely occur?
Why is the left ventricle more muscular than the right ventricle?
Why is the left ventricle more muscular than the right ventricle?
What is the primary function of the chordae tendineae?
What is the primary function of the chordae tendineae?
Which layer of the heart wall is in direct contact with the blood within the cardiac chambers?
Which layer of the heart wall is in direct contact with the blood within the cardiac chambers?
What is the role of intercalated discs in cardiac muscle?
What is the role of intercalated discs in cardiac muscle?
What is the functional significance of the heart being enclosed within the pericardium?
What is the functional significance of the heart being enclosed within the pericardium?
If the pacemaker cells in the heart were damaged, what would be the most likely consequence?
If the pacemaker cells in the heart were damaged, what would be the most likely consequence?
A doctor auscultates a patient's heart and detects a 'lub-whoosh-dup' sound. What is the most likely cause of this sound?
A doctor auscultates a patient's heart and detects a 'lub-whoosh-dup' sound. What is the most likely cause of this sound?
Which of the following correctly traces a drop of oxygenated blood through the systemic circuit?
Which of the following correctly traces a drop of oxygenated blood through the systemic circuit?
How do the coronary arteries support the function of the heart?
How do the coronary arteries support the function of the heart?
What would be the immediate effect of a blood clot blocking the left coronary artery?
What would be the immediate effect of a blood clot blocking the left coronary artery?
What is the function of the trabeculae carneae in the ventricles?
What is the function of the trabeculae carneae in the ventricles?
Why are a large number of mitochrondria important for cardiac muscle cells?
Why are a large number of mitochrondria important for cardiac muscle cells?
If the fibrous pericardium was abnormally tight, restricting the heart's movement, what would be the most likely consequence?
If the fibrous pericardium was abnormally tight, restricting the heart's movement, what would be the most likely consequence?
Which heart chamber receives oxygenated blood from the lungs?
Which heart chamber receives oxygenated blood from the lungs?
What is the primary role of calcium ions ($Ca^{2+}$) during the plateau phase of action potentials in contractile cardiac cells?
What is the primary role of calcium ions ($Ca^{2+}$) during the plateau phase of action potentials in contractile cardiac cells?
What is the functional significance of the delay in impulse transmission at the atrioventricular (AV) node?
What is the functional significance of the delay in impulse transmission at the atrioventricular (AV) node?
Which component of the electrocardiogram (ECG) corresponds to the repolarization of the ventricles?
Which component of the electrocardiogram (ECG) corresponds to the repolarization of the ventricles?
How does the autonomic nervous system modulate the intrinsic conduction system of the heart?
How does the autonomic nervous system modulate the intrinsic conduction system of the heart?
What would be the most likely heart rate if the atrioventricular (AV) node becomes the primary pacemaker of the heart?
What would be the most likely heart rate if the atrioventricular (AV) node becomes the primary pacemaker of the heart?
In cardiac contractile cells, what is the direct effect of the opening of fast voltage-gated sodium channels?
In cardiac contractile cells, what is the direct effect of the opening of fast voltage-gated sodium channels?
Why is the T wave wider than the QRS complex?
Why is the T wave wider than the QRS complex?
What is the role of the subendocardial conducting network (Purkinje fibers) in the heart?
What is the role of the subendocardial conducting network (Purkinje fibers) in the heart?
Which characteristic distinguishes pacemaker cells from contractile cardiac cells?
Which characteristic distinguishes pacemaker cells from contractile cardiac cells?
Where are postganglionic motor neurons of the cardioinhibitory center located?
Where are postganglionic motor neurons of the cardioinhibitory center located?
Which event is directly associated with the P wave on an electrocardiogram (ECG)?
Which event is directly associated with the P wave on an electrocardiogram (ECG)?
What is the significance of the atrioventricular (AV) bundle in the heart's electrical conduction system?
What is the significance of the atrioventricular (AV) bundle in the heart's electrical conduction system?
How does the opening of potassium channels contribute to the repolarization phase in both pacemaker and contractile cardiac cells?
How does the opening of potassium channels contribute to the repolarization phase in both pacemaker and contractile cardiac cells?
What is the inherent firing rate of the sinoatrial (SA) node, and why is it considered the primary pacemaker of the heart?
What is the inherent firing rate of the sinoatrial (SA) node, and why is it considered the primary pacemaker of the heart?
In an ECG, what does an abnormally long RR interval indicate?
In an ECG, what does an abnormally long RR interval indicate?
Which of the following best describes the Frank-Starling relationship?
Which of the following best describes the Frank-Starling relationship?
A patient's ECG shows no discernible P waves, QRS complexes, or T waves. The patient is most likely experiencing:
A patient's ECG shows no discernible P waves, QRS complexes, or T waves. The patient is most likely experiencing:
What is the primary immediate treatment for ventricular fibrillation?
What is the primary immediate treatment for ventricular fibrillation?
During which phase of the cardiac cycle is the pressure in the heart at its lowest?
During which phase of the cardiac cycle is the pressure in the heart at its lowest?
Which of the following occurs during the isovolumetric contraction phase of the cardiac cycle?
Which of the following occurs during the isovolumetric contraction phase of the cardiac cycle?
What does the end-systolic volume (ESV) represent?
What does the end-systolic volume (ESV) represent?
If a person's end diastolic volume (EDV) is 130 mL and their end systolic volume (ESV) is 60 mL, what is their stroke volume (SV)?
If a person's end diastolic volume (EDV) is 130 mL and their end systolic volume (ESV) is 60 mL, what is their stroke volume (SV)?
What effect would an increased afterload have on stroke volume, assuming other factors remain constant?
What effect would an increased afterload have on stroke volume, assuming other factors remain constant?
Which of the following changes would lead to an increase in cardiac output?
Which of the following changes would lead to an increase in cardiac output?
How does the parasympathetic nervous system influence heart rate?
How does the parasympathetic nervous system influence heart rate?
What is 'vagal tone' and how does it affect heart rate?
What is 'vagal tone' and how does it affect heart rate?
Compared to a sedentary individual, a highly trained athlete would likely have:
Compared to a sedentary individual, a highly trained athlete would likely have:
Which hormone primarily increases heart rate and contractility?
Which hormone primarily increases heart rate and contractility?
How would severe hypocalcemia (low blood calcium) likely affect heart rate?
How would severe hypocalcemia (low blood calcium) likely affect heart rate?
What is the effect of norepinephrine on the heart?
What is the effect of norepinephrine on the heart?
How does vasodilation primarily affect resistance in blood vessels?
How does vasodilation primarily affect resistance in blood vessels?
Which type of blood vessel is characterized by large intercellular clefts and a large lumen, making it more permeable than other capillary types?
Which type of blood vessel is characterized by large intercellular clefts and a large lumen, making it more permeable than other capillary types?
Why is low blood pressure in capillary beds crucial for their function?
Why is low blood pressure in capillary beds crucial for their function?
Which of the following mechanisms is the primary reason why blood continues to flow in veins despite low pressure?
Which of the following mechanisms is the primary reason why blood continues to flow in veins despite low pressure?
Increased blood viscosity directly leads to which of the following?
Increased blood viscosity directly leads to which of the following?
If a person's systolic blood pressure is 130 mm Hg and their diastolic blood pressure is 85 mm Hg, what is their pulse pressure?
If a person's systolic blood pressure is 130 mm Hg and their diastolic blood pressure is 85 mm Hg, what is their pulse pressure?
What is the primary role of the cardioinhibitory center of the medulla oblongata in regulating blood pressure?
What is the primary role of the cardioinhibitory center of the medulla oblongata in regulating blood pressure?
Which of the following best explains why systemic veins can act as blood reservoirs?
Which of the following best explains why systemic veins can act as blood reservoirs?
An increase in which factor would lead to a decrease in blood pressure?
An increase in which factor would lead to a decrease in blood pressure?
How do venous valves counteract the effects of low venous pressure?
How do venous valves counteract the effects of low venous pressure?
What is the most immediate effect of increased activity in the cardioacceleratory center?
What is the most immediate effect of increased activity in the cardioacceleratory center?
Which statement accurately describes the relationship between blood pressure, blood flow and resistance?
Which statement accurately describes the relationship between blood pressure, blood flow and resistance?
Which of the following statements is correct regarding blood pressure changes as blood circulates throughout the body?
Which of the following statements is correct regarding blood pressure changes as blood circulates throughout the body?
Which situation will result in an increased hydrostatic pressure difference and, therefore, greater blood flow?
Which situation will result in an increased hydrostatic pressure difference and, therefore, greater blood flow?
What is an effect of decreased distensibility of arterial walls on arterial blood pressure?
What is an effect of decreased distensibility of arterial walls on arterial blood pressure?
Which of the following best describes the primary structural difference between elastic arteries and muscular arteries?
Which of the following best describes the primary structural difference between elastic arteries and muscular arteries?
How does vasodilation in arterioles affect blood flow to capillary beds?
How does vasodilation in arterioles affect blood flow to capillary beds?
What is the primary functional significance of the vasa vasorum found in larger blood vessels?
What is the primary functional significance of the vasa vasorum found in larger blood vessels?
Which type of capillary is best suited for filtration and absorption in organs like the small intestine and kidneys?
Which type of capillary is best suited for filtration and absorption in organs like the small intestine and kidneys?
Why is hypertension a common cause of congestive heart failure?
Why is hypertension a common cause of congestive heart failure?
Which of the following is a consequence of prolonged inefficiency in the right side of the heart due to congestive heart failure?
Which of the following is a consequence of prolonged inefficiency in the right side of the heart due to congestive heart failure?
How does coronary atherosclerosis contribute to congestive heart failure?
How does coronary atherosclerosis contribute to congestive heart failure?
How would a significant, but non-lethal, increase in extracellular potassium (hyperkalemia) most directly affect the resting membrane potential of cardiac cells?
How would a significant, but non-lethal, increase in extracellular potassium (hyperkalemia) most directly affect the resting membrane potential of cardiac cells?
Which layer of a blood vessel wall is primarily responsible for regulating blood pressure through vasoconstriction and vasodilation?
Which layer of a blood vessel wall is primarily responsible for regulating blood pressure through vasoconstriction and vasodilation?
How do tight junctions and intercellular clefts in capillary walls affect capillary permeability?
How do tight junctions and intercellular clefts in capillary walls affect capillary permeability?
How does age typically affect heart rate, assuming a healthy heart?
How does age typically affect heart rate, assuming a healthy heart?
Why are continuous capillaries the least permeable type of capillary?
Why are continuous capillaries the least permeable type of capillary?
A patient is diagnosed with hypokalemia. How might this condition manifest in terms of cardiac function?
A patient is diagnosed with hypokalemia. How might this condition manifest in terms of cardiac function?
What is the role of the tunica externa in blood vessel structure and function?
What is the role of the tunica externa in blood vessel structure and function?
How does dilated cardiomyopathy lead to congestive heart failure?
How does dilated cardiomyopathy lead to congestive heart failure?
Which of the following scenarios would most likely trigger the baroreceptor reflex, leading to a decrease in blood pressure?
Which of the following scenarios would most likely trigger the baroreceptor reflex, leading to a decrease in blood pressure?
A patient is experiencing a significant drop in blood pH due to metabolic acidosis. Which of the following compensatory mechanisms is most likely to occur in the short term?
A patient is experiencing a significant drop in blood pH due to metabolic acidosis. Which of the following compensatory mechanisms is most likely to occur in the short term?
During a stressful situation, the higher brain centers can influence blood pressure by:
During a stressful situation, the higher brain centers can influence blood pressure by:
How does Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) work to decrease blood pressure?
How does Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) work to decrease blood pressure?
Which of the following best describes the relationship between ADH and blood pressure?
Which of the following best describes the relationship between ADH and blood pressure?
What is the initial effect of increased blood volume on kidney function as part of the direct renal mechanism?
What is the initial effect of increased blood volume on kidney function as part of the direct renal mechanism?
In the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, what is the direct effect of angiotensin II?
In the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, what is the direct effect of angiotensin II?
What is the primary mechanism by which the kidneys regulate blood pressure in the long term?
What is the primary mechanism by which the kidneys regulate blood pressure in the long term?
Which of the following is a potential consequence of chronic hypertension?
Which of the following is a potential consequence of chronic hypertension?
A patient with primary hypertension is prescribed an ACE inhibitor. How does this medication help lower blood pressure?
A patient with primary hypertension is prescribed an ACE inhibitor. How does this medication help lower blood pressure?
Which of the following conditions would most likely lead to secondary hypertension?
Which of the following conditions would most likely lead to secondary hypertension?
What is the underlying cause of orthostatic hypotension?
What is the underlying cause of orthostatic hypotension?
Which type of shock is characterized by severe vasodilation despite normal blood volume?
Which type of shock is characterized by severe vasodilation despite normal blood volume?
Anaphylactic shock, a type of vascular shock, is characterized by:
Anaphylactic shock, a type of vascular shock, is characterized by:
In septic shock, what is the role of bacterial endotoxins in causing a decrease in blood pressure?
In septic shock, what is the role of bacterial endotoxins in causing a decrease in blood pressure?
Which of the following is a unique feature of lymph nodes compared to other lymphoid organs?
Which of the following is a unique feature of lymph nodes compared to other lymphoid organs?
What is the functional significance of lymph entering a lymph node through multiple afferent vessels but exiting through only two efferent vessels?
What is the functional significance of lymph entering a lymph node through multiple afferent vessels but exiting through only two efferent vessels?
How does the absence of pain in enlarged lymph nodes differ in the context of lymphadenopathy and secondary cancer sites?
How does the absence of pain in enlarged lymph nodes differ in the context of lymphadenopathy and secondary cancer sites?
In what way does the spleen's function of recycling components of old red blood cells support overall body homeostasis?
In what way does the spleen's function of recycling components of old red blood cells support overall body homeostasis?
What is the functional advantage of having mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) in the mucous membranes that line the digestive and respiratory tracts?
What is the functional advantage of having mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) in the mucous membranes that line the digestive and respiratory tracts?
In what way does the structural arrangement of the thymus, with its cortex tightly packed with lymphocytes and its medulla containing Hassall's corpuscles, support its primary function?
In what way does the structural arrangement of the thymus, with its cortex tightly packed with lymphocytes and its medulla containing Hassall's corpuscles, support its primary function?
Why is the blood-thymus barrier essential for proper T cell development?
Why is the blood-thymus barrier essential for proper T cell development?
How do the anatomical differences between the red pulp and white pulp of the spleen reflect their distinct functions?
How do the anatomical differences between the red pulp and white pulp of the spleen reflect their distinct functions?
How does the function of Peyer's patches in the ileum differ from that of the appendix in the cecum?
How does the function of Peyer's patches in the ileum differ from that of the appendix in the cecum?
In what way does the unique cellular composition of the thymus—containing epithelial cells instead of reticular fibers—specifically benefit T cell maturation?
In what way does the unique cellular composition of the thymus—containing epithelial cells instead of reticular fibers—specifically benefit T cell maturation?
Which of the following best describes the primary mechanism by which nitric oxide (NO) contributes to intrinsic regulation of blood flow?
Which of the following best describes the primary mechanism by which nitric oxide (NO) contributes to intrinsic regulation of blood flow?
In myogenic control of blood flow, what is the immediate response of a blood vessel to increased pressure within the vessel?
In myogenic control of blood flow, what is the immediate response of a blood vessel to increased pressure within the vessel?
Why does blood flow velocity decrease significantly as blood enters the capillaries, despite the smaller diameter of individual capillaries compared to the aorta?
Why does blood flow velocity decrease significantly as blood enters the capillaries, despite the smaller diameter of individual capillaries compared to the aorta?
Which process primarily drives the movement of oxygen from the blood into tissue cells and carbon dioxide from tissue cells into the blood within capillaries?
Which process primarily drives the movement of oxygen from the blood into tissue cells and carbon dioxide from tissue cells into the blood within capillaries?
What is the role of colloid osmotic pressure (oncotic pressure) in capillary exchange?
What is the role of colloid osmotic pressure (oncotic pressure) in capillary exchange?
What is the net filtration pressure (NFP) if capillary hydrostatic pressure is 40 mm Hg, interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure is 2 mm Hg, capillary osmotic pressure is 25 mm Hg, and interstitial fluid osmotic pressure is 3 mm Hg?
What is the net filtration pressure (NFP) if capillary hydrostatic pressure is 40 mm Hg, interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure is 2 mm Hg, capillary osmotic pressure is 25 mm Hg, and interstitial fluid osmotic pressure is 3 mm Hg?
What happens to the fluid that filters out of the capillary bed at the arteriolar end and is not reabsorbed at the venous end?
What happens to the fluid that filters out of the capillary bed at the arteriolar end and is not reabsorbed at the venous end?
Which of the following is a primary function of the lymphatic system in relation to fluid balance?
Which of the following is a primary function of the lymphatic system in relation to fluid balance?
Why are lymphatic capillaries highly permeable?
Why are lymphatic capillaries highly permeable?
How does the lymphatic system contribute to the body's immune function?
How does the lymphatic system contribute to the body's immune function?
A blockage in the lymphatic vessels would most likely lead to:
A blockage in the lymphatic vessels would most likely lead to:
What is the primary driving force behind the movement of lymph through lymphatic vessels?
What is the primary driving force behind the movement of lymph through lymphatic vessels?
Why is maintaining adequate blood pressure crucial for proper tissue perfusion?
Why is maintaining adequate blood pressure crucial for proper tissue perfusion?
How does cardiogenic shock primarily impair blood flow to tissues?
How does cardiogenic shock primarily impair blood flow to tissues?
Which of the following is NOT a primary function of blood flow through tissues?
Which of the following is NOT a primary function of blood flow through tissues?
How do anchoring filaments contribute to the function of lymph capillaries?
How do anchoring filaments contribute to the function of lymph capillaries?
What structural feature of lymph capillaries allows them to take up larger molecules (like proteins) compared to blood capillaries?
What structural feature of lymph capillaries allows them to take up larger molecules (like proteins) compared to blood capillaries?
Why is the transport of fats via lacteals important for nutrient absorption?
Why is the transport of fats via lacteals important for nutrient absorption?
The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from which of the following body regions?
The right lymphatic duct drains lymph from which of the following body regions?
What is the primary mechanism by which lymph is propelled through lymphatic vessels, given that they lack an intrinsic pump like the heart?
What is the primary mechanism by which lymph is propelled through lymphatic vessels, given that they lack an intrinsic pump like the heart?
Why does blockage or removal of lymph vessels/nodes typically result in localized edema?
Why does blockage or removal of lymph vessels/nodes typically result in localized edema?
What is the role of helper T cells in the immune response?
What is the role of helper T cells in the immune response?
How do dendritic cells contribute to the activation of the immune system within lymph nodes?
How do dendritic cells contribute to the activation of the immune system within lymph nodes?
What is the function of reticular cells in lymphoid tissue?
What is the function of reticular cells in lymphoid tissue?
What is the significance of lymphocytes circulating through blood vessels, lymphoid tissue, and loose connective tissue?
What is the significance of lymphocytes circulating through blood vessels, lymphoid tissue, and loose connective tissue?
Which of the following best describes the function of lymphoid nodules?
Which of the following best describes the function of lymphoid nodules?
What is the key difference in the roles of primary and secondary lymphoid organs in the immune system?
What is the key difference in the roles of primary and secondary lymphoid organs in the immune system?
How does passing through multiple lymph nodes aid in the removal of debris and pathogens from the body?
How does passing through multiple lymph nodes aid in the removal of debris and pathogens from the body?
A patient has a localized infection in their lower leg. Why might a doctor recommend mobilizing (moving) the affected body part?
A patient has a localized infection in their lower leg. Why might a doctor recommend mobilizing (moving) the affected body part?
How do killer T cells contribute to the body's defense?
How do killer T cells contribute to the body's defense?
What is the primary advantage of erythrocytes lacking a nucleus and most organelles?
What is the primary advantage of erythrocytes lacking a nucleus and most organelles?
How does the flattened, disc-shape of erythrocytes contribute to their function in gas exchange?
How does the flattened, disc-shape of erythrocytes contribute to their function in gas exchange?
Why is it crucial that erythrocytes primarily rely on anaerobic mechanisms for energy production?
Why is it crucial that erythrocytes primarily rely on anaerobic mechanisms for energy production?
What is the direct effect of erythropoietin (EPO) on erythrocyte production?
What is the direct effect of erythropoietin (EPO) on erythrocyte production?
Why might individuals living at high altitudes develop secondary polycythemia?
Why might individuals living at high altitudes develop secondary polycythemia?
How does the body typically handle the iron (Fe2+) released during erythrocyte destruction?
How does the body typically handle the iron (Fe2+) released during erythrocyte destruction?
What is the most likely cause of renal anemia?
What is the most likely cause of renal anemia?
Which of the following is a potential consequence of polycythemia vera?
Which of the following is a potential consequence of polycythemia vera?
Losing between 15-30% of total blood volume typically leads to which of the following symptoms?
Losing between 15-30% of total blood volume typically leads to which of the following symptoms?
Why are blood transfusions between individuals with incompatible blood antigens typically avoided?
Why are blood transfusions between individuals with incompatible blood antigens typically avoided?
What is the role of globin proteins in hemoglobin?
What is the role of globin proteins in hemoglobin?
Which dietary component is most critical for the synthesis of DNA during erythropoiesis?
Which dietary component is most critical for the synthesis of DNA during erythropoiesis?
After an erythrocyte is broken down, what happens to the bilirubin that results from heme processing?
After an erythrocyte is broken down, what happens to the bilirubin that results from heme processing?
A patient is diagnosed with chronic hemorrhagic anemia. Which of the following is the most likely cause?
A patient is diagnosed with chronic hemorrhagic anemia. Which of the following is the most likely cause?
What is the primary mechanism by which blood compensates for acute blood loss?
What is the primary mechanism by which blood compensates for acute blood loss?
Flashcards
Blood's primary function
Blood's primary function
Transports oxygen and nutrients, removes wastes, transports hormones.
Blood's maintenance function
Blood's maintenance function
Maintaining body temperature, pH, and fluid volume.
Blood's protective function
Blood's protective function
Blood clotting and fighting infection.
Blood Characteristics
Blood Characteristics
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Blood Plasma Composition
Blood Plasma Composition
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Albumin
Albumin
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Fibrinogen
Fibrinogen
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Globulins
Globulins
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Hematopoiesis
Hematopoiesis
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Erythrocytes (RBCs)
Erythrocytes (RBCs)
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Hemoglobin (Hb)
Hemoglobin (Hb)
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O2 binding by Hb
O2 binding by Hb
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Erythropoiesis
Erythropoiesis
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Erythropoietin (EPO)
Erythropoietin (EPO)
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Anemia
Anemia
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Polycythemia
Polycythemia
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Acute hemorrhagic anemia
Acute hemorrhagic anemia
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Chronic hemorrhagic anemia
Chronic hemorrhagic anemia
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Renal anemia
Renal anemia
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Secondary polycythemia
Secondary polycythemia
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Blood's response after loss
Blood's response after loss
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Antigens
Antigens
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Hypovolemic shock
Hypovolemic shock
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Agglutinins
Agglutinins
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Type O Blood
Type O Blood
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Universal Donor
Universal Donor
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Type AB Blood
Type AB Blood
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Universal Recipient
Universal Recipient
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Rh Blood Group
Rh Blood Group
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Agglutination
Agglutination
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Leukocytes
Leukocytes
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Defensins
Defensins
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Eosinophils
Eosinophils
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Basophils
Basophils
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Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes
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B-Lymphocytes (B-Cells)
B-Lymphocytes (B-Cells)
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Monocytes
Monocytes
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Leukopoiesis
Leukopoiesis
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Systemic Circuit
Systemic Circuit
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Aorta
Aorta
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Vena Cava
Vena Cava
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Right Side of Heart (Pulmonic)
Right Side of Heart (Pulmonic)
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Left Side of Heart (Systemic)
Left Side of Heart (Systemic)
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Fibrous Pericardium Function
Fibrous Pericardium Function
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Serous Pericardium Function
Serous Pericardium Function
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Epicardium
Epicardium
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Myocardium
Myocardium
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Endocardium
Endocardium
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Atria
Atria
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Auricles
Auricles
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Ventricles
Ventricles
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Trabeculae Carneae
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Chordae Tendineae
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Acute Leukemia
Acute Leukemia
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Chronic Leukemia
Chronic Leukemia
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Myeloid Leukemia
Myeloid Leukemia
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Lymphocytic Leukemia
Lymphocytic Leukemia
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Thrombocytes (Platelets)
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
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Thrombopoietin
Thrombopoietin
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Hemostasis
Hemostasis
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Vascular Spasm
Vascular Spasm
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Platelet Plug Formation
Platelet Plug Formation
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Coagulation
Coagulation
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Factor XIII
Factor XIII
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Blood Clot Retraction
Blood Clot Retraction
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Fibrinolysis
Fibrinolysis
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Thromboembolic Disorders
Thromboembolic Disorders
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Thrombocytopenia
Thrombocytopenia
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Ventricular Fibrillation
Ventricular Fibrillation
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Cardiac Cycle
Cardiac Cycle
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Systole
Systole
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Diastole
Diastole
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End Diastolic Volume (EDV)
End Diastolic Volume (EDV)
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Isovolumetric Contraction
Isovolumetric Contraction
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Ventricular Ejection
Ventricular Ejection
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End Systolic Volume (ESV)
End Systolic Volume (ESV)
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Cardiac Output (CO)
Cardiac Output (CO)
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Stroke Volume (SV)
Stroke Volume (SV)
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Preload
Preload
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Afterload
Afterload
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Contractility
Contractility
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Sympathetic Effect on HR
Sympathetic Effect on HR
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Parasympathetic Effect on HR
Parasympathetic Effect on HR
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Pacemaker Potential
Pacemaker Potential
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Pacemaker Cell Depolarization
Pacemaker Cell Depolarization
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Pacemaker Cell Repolarization
Pacemaker Cell Repolarization
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Heart's Conduction Nodes
Heart's Conduction Nodes
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Sinoatrial (SA) Node
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AV Node Delay
AV Node Delay
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AV Bundle Function
AV Bundle Function
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Purkinje Fibers
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Autonomic Innervation
Autonomic Innervation
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Cardioacceleratory Center
Cardioacceleratory Center
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Cardioinhibitory Center
Cardioinhibitory Center
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Contractile Cell Depolarization
Contractile Cell Depolarization
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Plateau Phase
Plateau Phase
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Contractile Cell Repolarization
Contractile Cell Repolarization
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Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
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Low Calcium Effect on HR
Low Calcium Effect on HR
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Hypokalemia effect on heart
Hypokalemia effect on heart
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Hyperkalemia effect on heart
Hyperkalemia effect on heart
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Age and Heart Rate
Age and Heart Rate
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Biological Sex and Heart Rate
Biological Sex and Heart Rate
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Fitness and Heart Rate
Fitness and Heart Rate
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Body Temperature and Heart Rate
Body Temperature and Heart Rate
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Congestive Heart Failure
Congestive Heart Failure
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Coronary Atherosclerosis
Coronary Atherosclerosis
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Hypertension Impact on Heart
Hypertension Impact on Heart
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Myocardial Infarctions Impact
Myocardial Infarctions Impact
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Dilated Cardiomyopathy
Dilated Cardiomyopathy
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Pulmonary Congestion
Pulmonary Congestion
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Peripheral Congestion
Peripheral Congestion
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Tunica Intima
Tunica Intima
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Sinusoid Capillaries
Sinusoid Capillaries
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Capillary Beds
Capillary Beds
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Microcirculation
Microcirculation
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Venules
Venules
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Vein Function
Vein Function
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Vein Structure
Vein Structure
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Blood Flow
Blood Flow
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Blood Pressure
Blood Pressure
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Resistance
Resistance
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Blood Viscosity
Blood Viscosity
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Vasoconstriction
Vasoconstriction
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Systolic Blood Pressure
Systolic Blood Pressure
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Diastolic Blood Pressure
Diastolic Blood Pressure
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Pulse Pressure
Pulse Pressure
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Cardiovascular Center
Cardiovascular Center
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Lymph Node Function
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Lymph Node Cortex
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Lymph Node Medulla
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Afferent Lymphatic Vessels
Afferent Lymphatic Vessels
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Efferent Lymphatic Vessels
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Lymphadenopathy
Lymphadenopathy
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Spleen's Primary Function
Spleen's Primary Function
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Red Pulp (Spleen)
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White Pulp (Spleen)
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MALT Function
MALT Function
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Vasomotor Center
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Baroreceptors
Baroreceptors
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Chemoreceptors' Role
Chemoreceptors' Role
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Higher Brain Centers' Impact
Higher Brain Centers' Impact
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Epinephrine/Norepinephrine Effect
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine Effect
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Angiotensin II
Angiotensin II
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Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
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Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
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Direct Renal Mechanism
Direct Renal Mechanism
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Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism
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Hypertension
Hypertension
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Primary (Essential) Hypertension
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Hypotension Definition
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Orthostatic Hypotension
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Shock Definition
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Lymph Capillaries
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Anchoring Filaments
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Lacteals
Lacteals
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Collecting Lymphatic Vessels
Collecting Lymphatic Vessels
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Lumbar Trunks
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Lymphatic Ducts
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Right Lymphatic Duct
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Thoracic Duct
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Cisterna Chyli
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Lymphatic Fluid Movement
Lymphatic Fluid Movement
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Helper T Cells
Helper T Cells
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Killer T Cells
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Reticular Cells
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Primary Lymphoid Organs
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Cardiogenic Shock
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Cause of Cardiogenic Shock
Cause of Cardiogenic Shock
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Blood Flow Importance
Blood Flow Importance
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Blood Flow Regulation
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Autoregulation
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How Organs Change Blood Flow
How Organs Change Blood Flow
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Methods of Autoregulation
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Metabolic Control of Blood Flow
Metabolic Control of Blood Flow
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Myogenic Control
Myogenic Control
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How Blood Delivers Nutrients
How Blood Delivers Nutrients
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Greatest Cross-Sectional Area
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Diffusion Definition
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Capillary Exchange
Capillary Exchange
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Pressures and Fluid Movement
Pressures and Fluid Movement
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Lymphatic System Function
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Study Notes
Blood Functions
- Blood transports oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removes waste products like carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes.
- Blood maintains body temperature, pH balance, and fluid volume.
- Blood protects the body through clotting mechanisms and immune responses via leukocytes.
Characteristics of Blood
- Varies in color from scarlet (oxygen-rich) to dark red (oxygen-poor).
- Total volume averages about 5.25 liters.
- Has a pH range of 7.35-7.45.
- Viscous due to the presence of erythrocytes (red blood cells).
Blood Composition
- Consists of plasma and blood cells.
- Blood plasma is the fluid portion, primarily water (90%), containing solutes like electrolytes, nitrogenous substances, organic nutrients, respiratory gases, hormones, and plasma proteins.
- Plasma proteins, mostly produced by the liver, include albumin (transport and water balance), fibrinogen (clotting), and globulins (transport and immunity).
Blood Cells
- Short-lived and non-mitotic.
- Three types: erythrocytes (RBCs), leukocytes (WBCs), and thrombocytes (platelets).
- Hematocrit measures the percentage of blood volume made up by erythrocytes, about 47% in males and 42% in females.
Hematopoiesis
- Production of all blood cells in red bone marrow.
- All blood cells originate from hematopoietic stem cells (hemocytoblasts).
- Stem cells commit to specific blood cell types.
- Red marrow produces billions of blood cells daily.
Erythrocytes (RBCs)
- Function: primarily responsible for respiratory gas (oxygen) transport.
- Lose nuclei and most organelles during development to maximize space for hemoglobin.
- Hemoglobin (Hb) comprised of heme pigment bound to globin protein carries oxygen.
- Each hemoglobin molecule can bind to four oxygen molecules.
Features of Erythrocytes for Gas Exchange
- Large surface area relative to volume.
- Flattened disc shape.
- Anaerobic energy production.
Erythropoiesis
- Red blood cell production.
- Starts with hematopoietic stem cell committing to proerythroblast.
- Erythropoietin (EPO), produced by kidneys, stimulates erythrocyte production.
- Testosterone enhances EPO production, leading to generally higher erythrocyte and Hb levels in males.
- Requires amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates, B-complex vitamins (B12, folic acid), and iron for normal erythrocyte production.
Destruction of Erythrocytes
- Average lifespan is approximately 120 days.
- Macrophages engulf and destroy aged, less flexible erythrocytes.
- Heme converts to bilirubin in the liver to be excreted, and globin proteins break down into amino acids for reuse.
- Iron is salvaged for reuse.
Homeostatic Imbalances of Erythrocytes
- Anemia: insufficient oxygen supply, leading to paleness, coldness, and fatigue.
- Polycythemia: excess erythrocytes, thickening blood and increasing heart attack risk.
Types of Anemia
- Acute hemorrhagic anemia: caused by severe, swift blood loss.
- Chronic hemorrhagic anemia: caused by slow, persistent blood loss.
- Iron-deficiency anemia: nutritional origins.
- Renal anemia: little/no EPO release.
- Sickle-cell anemia: excessive erythrocyte destruction/deformation.
Types of Polycythemia
- Polycythemia vera: Hematocrit levels around 80%.
- Secondary polycythemia: increased EPO release to low oxygen availability.
- Blood doping: temporary polycythemia via synthetic EPO, oxygen carriers, or transfusions.
Blood Loss Compensation
- Body compensates for blood loss by constricting blood vessels and increasing red blood cell production.
- Losing 15-30% of total blood volume leads to weakness, and 30%+ loss can lead to severe shock.
- Whole blood transfusions are rare; red cell transfusions are more common.
Blood Transfusions
- Erythrocytes possess surface antigens, including ABO and Rh antigens.
- Transfusions require matching antigens to avoid immune reactions.
- ABO Blood Groups:
- Type A: A antigen present.
- Type B: B antigen present.
- Type O: no antigens present.
- Type AB: both A and B antigens present.
Agglutinins
- Immune system antibodies will attack mismatched cells.
Person with:
- Type A blood has anti-B antibodies.
- Type B blood has anti-A antibodies.
- Type AB blood has neither type of antibody.
- Type O blood has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies.
Rh Blood Groups
- Presence of D antigen determines Rh+ status.
- Incompatibility can lead to transfusion reactions and erythroblastosis fetalis.
- Mismatching leads to agglutination and lysis of erythrocytes, decreasing oxygen transport and damaging kidneys.
- Type O is the universal donor, and type AB is the universal recipient.
Leukocytes (WBCs)
- Defend the body against infection.
- Can leave blood vessels, produced quickly, average lifespan 13-20 days.
Categories of Leukocytes
- Granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
- Agranulocytes: lymphocytes and monocytes.
Granulocytes functions
- Neutrophils: kill bacteria.
- Eosinophils: parasites killer with digestive enzymes.
- Basophils: cause inflammation with histamine that attract the increased blood flow.
Agranulocytes Functions
- Lymphocytes: includes T-cells (act against virus infected cells and tumor cells), B-cells (produce antibodies), and natural killer cells (act against virus infected and tumor cells).
- Monocytes: differentiate into macrophages that destroy bacteria, viruses, and chronic infections.
Leukopoiesis
- Leukocyte production stimulated by interleukins and colony-stimulating factors.
- Hematopoietic stem cells differentiate into myeloid stem cells (myeloblasts or monoblasts) or lymphoid stem cells (B-lymphocyte or T-lymphocyte precursors).
Homeostatic Imbalances of Leukocytes
- Leukemia: cancer resulting in over-production of abnormal leukocytes.
- Acute leukemia: derived from stem cells (primarily affects children).
- Chronic leukemia: derived from later cell stages (primarily affects the elderly).
- Myeloid leukemia: Involves myeloid stem cell descendant.
- Lymphocyte leukemia: Involves lymphocytes
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
- Fragments of megakaryocytes.
- Average lifespan: 10 days.
- Initiate blood clot formation after damage to blood vessel wall.
- Prostacyclin and nitric oxide prevent sticking together with no damage.
- Platelet formation by thrombopoietin hormone.
Hemostasis
- Process to stop bleeding after vessel rupture.
- Three steps:
- Vascular spasm: rapid constriction to minimize blood flow.
- Platelet plug formation: platelets stick and release ADP, serotonin, and thromboxane A2.
- Coagulation: clotting factors (I-XIII) form prothrombin activator, which converts prothrombin into thrombin, then coverts fibrinogen into fibrin molecules.
Blood Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis
- Clot retraction pulls damaged edges together and causes increase fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells.
- Fibrinolysis removes blood clot after healing through enzyme plasmin.
Homeostatic Imbalances of Blood Clotting
- Thromboembolic disorders: Thrombus forms in unbroken vessel; embolus breaks free and obstructs smaller blood vessels.
- Bleeding disorders: Absence of desirable blood clots.
- Thrombocytopenia: few platelets cause hemorrhage.
- Hemophilia: hereditary disorders cause extreme bleeding.
- Hemophilia A(factor VIII) caused factor VIII and Hemophilia A (factor IX).
- Hemophilia C caused factor XI (least likely)
- Treatment: Plasma transfusions and Injections of absent/deficiency clotting factor.
Blood Circulation
- Pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit.
- Pulmonary circuit vessels travel to and from the lungs (pulmonary arteries and veins), with the right side of heart.
- Systemic circuit vessels travel to and from all body tissues, with the left side of heart.
- Left side has high pressure vs right side (pulmonic) is relatively low-pressure.
Gross Anatomy of the Heart
- Apex (inferior tip of the heart) points to the left hip.
- Coverings: Enclosed in pericardium.
- Fibrous pericardium: anchors heart in the chest cavity and protects the heart.
- Serous pericardium: divided in visceral and parietal layers, forms a fluid filled sac.
Layers of the Heart Wall
- Epicardium (internal layer): visceral of pericardium.
- Myocardium (middle layer): contains cardiac muscle cells (thickest).
- Endocardium (innermost layer): produces and secretes slick.
Chambers of the Heart (4)
- 2 atria (superior receiving chamber) and 2 ventricles (inferior pumping chambers).
- Right atrium: receives oxygen-poor blood via the precava, postcava, and coronary veins.
- Left atrium: receives oxygenated via pulmonary veins.
Heart Valves
- Prevent backflow of blood
- Atrioventricular (AV) valves prevent backflow from the ventricles into the atria.
- Tricuspid valve: right side.
- Mitral (bicuspid) valve: right side.
- Semilunar (SL) valves: prevents blood vessels into ventricles
- Aortic semilunar valve: base of the aorta.
- Pulmonary semilunar valve: base of the pulmonary trunk.
Homeostatic Imbalance of the Valves
- Caused by dysfunctional or narrow valve.
Heart Sounds
- Make a lub-dup sound
- With murmurs, sounds like “lub-whoosh-dup”.
- Sound is blood flowing backwards
- “innocent “ murmurs are congenital
Blood Supply to the Heart
- Coronary circulation supplies heart tissue with nutrients.
- Supplies with right and left coronary arteries.
- Coronary veins drain oxygen-poor blood into right atrium.
Microscopic Anatomy of the Heart
- Cardiac muscle cells (myocytes) contract to move blood
- 25-30% of the cell is made up of Mitochondria. Heart always needs ATP and prevents muscle tissue from fatiguing
Cardiac Muscle Cells Types
- Pacemaker: spontaneously depolarize.
- Contractile: depolarize in response to the depolarization of pacemaker cells.
Cardiac Muscle Physiology: Pacemaker Cells Action Potential
- Potential: Na+ channels open, K+ channels close
- Depolarization : Ca2+ channels open at threshold potential (-40 mV).
- Repolarization -> Ca2+ channels close with K+ rushing out.
- Pace maker are only found at Nodes of the heart. Sinoatrial (SA), Atrioventricular (AV), Atrioventricular (AV) bundle, Bundle branches and Subendocardial conducting network (Purkinje fibers)
Autonomic Innervation of the Heart
- Cardiac centers found in medulla oblongata.
- Cardioacceleratory center: sympathetic division.
- Cardioinhibitory center: parasympathetic division (via vagus nerve).
Cardiac Muscle Physiology: Contractile Cardiac Cells
- Cell resting state mV (-90mV vs -60mV).
- 3 phases Action potentials:
- Depolarization, Plateau phase, and Repolarization
Electrocardiography
- Detection of the electrical impulses generated in and transmitted by the heart
- Electrocardiogram (ECG) has waves, that have significance:
- P wave(atrial depolarization), QRS complex (ventricles depolarization), and T wave(ventricles repolarization).
Abnormal ECGs and what they mean
- Can look at Junction rhythms and Ventricular fibrillation.
The Cardiac Cycle
- Systole contraction and diastole relaxation, four phases: Ventricular filling (mid to late diastole), Isovolumetric contraction phase (systole), Ventricular ejection (systole), Isovolumetric relaxation (early diastole)
Cardiac Output CO
- Amount of blood by ventricle in a single minute.
- CO = stroke volume (SV) x heart rate (HR).
- To increase SV = increase EDV(blood found in the ventricle before it contracts) and decrease ESV (volume of blood remaining in the ventricles after contraction) Average for an adult is ~70 mL blood per beat
Maximal Cardiac Output
- Level of physical fitness
- Normal BP is Systolic over diastolic, is 90-120 / 70-80 mm Hg
Cardiac Output: Regulating Stroke Volume
- Preload to stretch muscle cells just prior to contraction
- Frank-starling relationship: Stretch the wall of the heart more, the stronger the contractile cells will contract. Increase Blood brought tot he heart to contract it
- ESV: intrinsic strength of the ventricle independent of loading conditions, increase contractility will increase amount of blood. Less Load = more blood is moved
Cardiac Output: Regulating Heart Rate
- Autonomic nervous system input, with sympathetic (fight or flight) parasympathetic (rest and digest.
- Chemical regulation (Epinephrine and norepinephrine) Can cause Hypocalcemia, hypercalcemia, hypokalemia, hyperkalemia
- Hormones, age, , Biological sex and exercise/physical fitness.body temps increase, increased fitness reduce
Homeostatic Imbalances of the Heart
- Congestive heart failure inefficiency of blood-pumping.
- Can cause Coronary atherosclerosis, cause Hypertension, Cause Multiple myocardial infarctions and Dilated cardiomyopathy.
- Pulmonary congestion: left side fails.
- Peripheral congestion: right side fails.
- Treatments: remove excess fluid, decrease, increase contractility of defective side
Structure of Blood Vessel Walls
- Contains 3 layers: Tunica intima, Tunica media and Tunica externa
- Tunica intima: innermost layer. Contains endothelium of simple squamous cells. Provides slick surface for the blood.
- Tunica media: middle layer. Contains smooth muscle. Vasodilation muscle relaxes and lumen becomes larger if more blood is needed. Vasoconstriction smooth muscle contracts and lumen becomes smaller if less blood is needed.
- Tunica externa: outermost layer. Contains collagen protects and anchors. And Vasa vasorum blood vessel on blood vessel to ensure outer cells stay alive
Types of Blood Vessels: Arteries
- Branch several times to form smaller. Systemic arteries carry oxygenated blood, pulmonary arteries oxygen-poor blood.
- Arteries Carry blood away from the heart to body tissues:
- Elastic arteries (“conducting arteries”), have large lumen and walls.
- Muscular arteries(“distributing arteries”), the blood goes.
- Arterioles (“resistance arteries”), Narrow blood carry less blood, so the capillary blood will receive less blood Vessels.
Types of Blood Vessels: Capillaries
- Exchange via simple squamous that exchange gases.
- The structure increases efficiency
- Blood and Cells joined by tight junctions, but have intercellular clefts that determine permeability
- These Include Continuous, Fenestrated and Sinusoid capillaries
Circulation In Vessels
- There is always Flow from high pressure to low pressure Venules.
- Venules lead from capillary beds to larger veins Blood and large diameter help.
- Thin Walls and Larger lumen increase surface area. From capillary beds smaller combine to Larger veins:
Physiology of Circulation
- Three main factors must be present for Circulation
- Blood Flow from high pressure to low pressure(vessels).
- Blood Pressure push against the vessel
- Resistance push back, viscosity increase=more push (thickness of liquid)
Systemic Blood Pressure
- Arterial blood pressure- is the pressure and stretching of vessels when contracting and expanding.
- Vessels are affected by two factors, Distensibility of vessel walls(stretch)and Volume of blood moving in arteries.
Systemic Blood Pressure Measurements
Systolic Pressure (top) is the pressure of ventricles contracting and releasing blood, Normal range is 90 to 120mm Hg Diastolic Pressure (bottom) is the pressure while relaxed and filling with vessels maintain pressure, Normal Healthy range is 70–80 mm Hg pulse, (difference -between Systolic and Diastolic)
Regulation of Blood Pressure
- Increase in CO, R and blood volume increase will increase blood pressure.
- Cardiovascular Center- in the medulla oblongata alters cardiac output and blood vessel diameter via Cardia centers and Vasomotor center
Other Factors That Change Blood Pressure
- Baroreceptors or Stretch receptors can Decrease or Increase BP by adjusting cardio output and vessel control
- Chemoreceptors Change CO2 levels, blood pH, and oxygen content in the body can alter BP
- Hormones and Blood volume can change your blood pressure
Homeostatic Imbalances of Pressure and Ways to Resolve
-
Hypertension high(130/80 or higher) can cause failure but is reduced with weight loss and drug therapy. Primary (essential) hypertension is not caused by a distinct influencer or issue. Secondary hypertension Caused by other conditions
-
Hypotension is low(Low(90/60 or lower), is resolved with Sympathetic stimulation of nervous system Causes of Shock.
- Hypovolemic ( blood drop).
- Vascular(poor circulation)
- Cardiogenic Heart Issues
Types of Fluid Flow and Fluid Movement Through the Vessel
- Autoregulation* organs change blood flow through metabolic chemical and myogenic physical means
- Metabolic Control* release of nitric oxide (NO) in tissues dilates arterioles, increasing blood supply to capillary beds
- Myogenic Control* Pressure change causes stretch muscle in arteries. Pressure drops in vessels and causes smooth relaxation, blood supply increases .
- Pressure in veins can be modified by large lumens, vasoconstriction or venous movement.
Regulation: Neural Control
Three main factors for Short term regulation:
- Baroreceptors that stretch or activate
- Chemoreceptors with CO2 fluctuations, pH, and O2, in the vessels
- Higher Brain Center, emotions, and hormones
Factors That Affect Velocity
- Velocity is controlled by Diffusion: Movement of high to low and diffusion across the tissue of O2, nutrients, capillary, waste, fenestration, and membranes. Not all tissues need large amounts of blood at the same time
- Fluid movement by force:
- Hydrostatic pressure (Hp)-Fluid pressure against Vessel.
- Movement in interstitial fluid via capillary walls
The Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Tissues: Functions and Composition
- Picks up fluid lost by blood capillaries.
- Provides structural basis for immune system. The capillaries have lymphocytes and Lymph Tissues. The fluid goes back in circulation
General Lymphatic Functions and Lymphoid Cells
- Lymphatic vessels move fluid to the heart
- Lymph capillaries are blind-ended vessels that weave through capillary beds and are permeable Flaps of endothelial wall open easily depending on the fluid in the surrounding tissue
Where and How Lymph Enters Bloodstream
- Lymph capillaries drain into larger lymph vessels through collecting vessels and then lymphatic trunks.
- Lymphatic ducts empty junction at internal jugular vein and subclavian vein for Transport.
- Lymph nodes are cleaned as they filter but there is no pump used as muscles stimulate fluids
Lymphoid Movement Function
- There is No movement by fluid on its own, rather, by movement through vessels
- The fluid is moved by pressure from nearby Arteries or moving muscles (physical movements) not a pump.
Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
- House lymphocyte cells and proliferate
- Reticular connective tissues, ensures good patrol of body.
- Lymph are T, B, cells Macrophage
- Two main functions:
- House lymphocyte for growth and division
- Provides surveillance point for cells
Types Of Lymphoid Tissue and Areas
- Diffuse (in body organs and mucus regions.)
- Lymphoid (mostly lymph's and organs Germinal: proliferating center of cells in Lymph nodes)
- Primary red bone marrow: Thymus location where B and T cells mature, recognize, and learn.
Lymph Nodes
- Primary: red bone marrow B is produced
- Secondary: Thymus red B are matured.
3 Types of Lymph Secondary Action
- The Activating Function lymph drains to area for immunity dendritic is there
- Cleanser Function is cleaned as it goes in
- Node Action the fluid enters faster then it exits to maximize cleanse
- Afferent vessels(arrive) Efferent(Enters)
- Afferent lymphatic vessels bring lymph in than they leave
The Secondary Type Area's
- Lymph nodes filter B/T and form Clusters in armpits etc.... where large numbers of collecting
- Spleen Removes blood cells for reuse after pathogens pull them out. Is Well vascularized. High Blood Loss from rupture
- Red Pulp Recycles damage and stores.
- White pulp. Serves most immunity with reticular. Fiber
Types of Tissue Where Infection Prevention Occurs
- This Includes Tonsils which are in the mouth where food and substance can enter and has Palatine and Lingual tonsils found in base area
- Adenoids pharyngeal: In posterior wall of nose and Tubal tonsils surroundings of tubes in throats.
Types of Homeostasis Factors
- Thymus is the production of the site T cell
- If it doesn't work Thymoma can't be destroyed/attacked or work. Which the largest and most used by infants but begins when growing and then will produce a reduce rate over time. Blood Thymus prevents exposure to the Blood-Thymus Barrier to antigens too early.
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Description
Explore blood functions, plasma proteins, and blood clot formation. Understand hematocrit values, oxygen transport, and the roles of the lungs and urinary system in maintaining blood pH. Learn about thrombopoietin's role in hemostasis.
