Biotechnology for Prelims Exam 2012-2023

Welcome to Prelims Marathon

• Focuses on Science & Technology for UPSC Prelims.
• Biotechnology is a complex subject frequently appearing in UPSC Prelims exams (2012-2023).
• Biotechnology is a rapidly evolving field.
• Information and Communication Technology (ICT), including Artificial Intelligence (AI) and tools like ChatGPT and Gemini, is a crucial segment.
• This lecture focuses on Biotechnology, essential for good marks.

Major Topics in Biotechnology

• Basics of Biology: Fundamental biological concepts for understanding biotechnology.
• Biotechnology: Using biological processes, organisms, or systems to make products or services.
• Processes of Biotechnology: Procedures in biotechnology applications.
  • Bacillus thuringiensis (BT): Application in engineering.
  • Bioprocess Engineering: Designing and operating biological processes, often for pharmaceuticals.
• Genetic Engineering: Modifying organisms at the genetic level.
  • Genome Sequencing Projects: Important in India and globally.
• Health and Biotechnology: Biotechnology's impact on health.
  • Gene Therapy
  • Stem Cell Therapy
  • CAR T-cell Therapy
• Agriculture and Biotechnology:
  • GM Crops (Genetically Modified Crops)
  • Biopesticides
• ART (Assisted Reproductive Technologies): Procedures for human reproduction, such as Three-Parent Baby.
• Cloning: Creating genetically identical copies.
• Important Regulations: Biotechnology regulations in India.

Understanding Biotechnology

• Biotechnology combines biological processes and engineering principles for new products.
• Coined in 1919 by Karl Ereky, a Hungarian agricultural engineer.
• Manipulates living organisms or components for beneficial products.
• While a relatively new field, applications have existed for centuries (e.g., traditional food production, medicine).

Applications of Biotechnology

• Treating diseases
• Developing new diagnostic tools
• Improving crops and livestock
• Creating new materials
• Cleaning up the environment

Genetic Engineering

• Scientists directly manipulate organism genes for specific traits.
• Relies on recombinant DNA technology (transferring genes across species).
• Applications are vast, in medicine, agriculture, and industry.

Genome Sequencing

• Determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism.
• Importance in:
  • Understanding genetic bases of diseases
  • Identifying drug targets
  • Developing personalized medicine
  • Studying evolutionary relationships
  • Improving crops and livestock
• Technology is evolving and becoming more accessible.

Gene Editing

• Technologies to change DNA sequences in a targeted way.
• Precise modifications for
  • Treating genetic diseases
  • Developing new disease models
  • Enhancing crop and livestock traits.
• More precise than genetic engineering.

Mendelian Genetics

• Explains trait inheritance across generations.
• Framework for understanding genetic engineering, genome sequencing, and the effects of genetic manipulations.

Important Points

• Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence of an organism.
• Phenotype: Observable characteristics influenced by genotype.
• Genotype: An organism's genetic makeup.
• Genome: The complete genetic material (DNA or RNA).

Bioprocess Engineering

• Designing and operating biological processes (using cells or enzymes).
• Examples include fermentation, pharmaceuticals, and biofuels.

Genetic Engineering vs. Gene Editing

• Genetic engineering introduces new genes (creating transgenic organisms).
• Gene editing alters existing genes by deleting, inserting, or modifying sequences (no foreign DNA).
• Genetic engineering focuses on modification; gene editing focuses on alteration.
• Transgenic organisms from genetic engineering; GMOs from gene editing.

Understanding Recombinant DNA Technology

• Foundation of genetic engineering.
• Plasmids (circular extrachromosomal DNA in bacteria) play a critical role.
• Accidental discovery by Stanley and Herbert revolutionized genetic engineering.
• Restriction enzymes (molecular scissors) cut DNA.
• Ligase enzymes (molecular glue) join DNA fragments.
• Recombinant plasmids are made by inserting foreign DNA into plasmids using restriction/ligase enzymes.
• rDNA production of insulin in bacteria demonstrated the method's potential.

Different Types of Restriction Enzymes

• Categorized by DNA cutting mechanisms.
• Exonucleases cut ends; endonucleases cut within sequences.
• Endonucleases crucial for gene editing.
• Exonucleases typically remove nucleotides from DNA ends.

CRISPR-Cas9: Revolutionizing Gene Editing

• Powerful gene-editing technology.
• CRISPR: Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats.
• CRISPR-Cas9 utilizes short palindromic repeats, interspersed by spacer sequences in bacterial genomes.
• Spacer sequences indicate past viral infections, contributing to the bacterial immune system.
• CRISPR systems protect against viruses by targeting viral DNA.
• Cas9 enzyme acts as molecular scissors, cutting DNA at specific locations guided by RNA sequences.
• CRISPR has great potential in treating diseases, enhancing crop yields, and addressing other global challenges.

CRISPR-Cas9 (Summary)

• Gene-editing tool using CRISPR sequences and the Cas9 enzyme.
• CRISPR: Short, repeating DNA sequences in bacteria.
• Cas9: Enzyme that cuts DNA at specific locations.
• CRISPR-Cas9 system has three parts:
  • Guide RNA: Targets specific DNA sequences.
  • Cas9 enzyme: Cuts DNA at the targeted location.
  • Optional DNA template: Provides a repair sequence.

How CRISPR-Cas9 Works

• CRISPR-Cas9 corrects faulty genes.
• Guide RNA matches the faulty gene sequence.
• Guide RNA guides Cas9 to the faulty DNA sequence.
• Cas9 cuts the DNA.
• A template is used to repair the cut if provided.

Uses of CRISPR-Cas9

• Correcting genetic disorders (e.g., sickle cell anemia).
• Developing new genetic therapies.
• Researching gene function; improving crop yields.

Human Genome Project

• Global effort to sequence the entire human genome.
• Began in 1990; completed in 2003.
• Approximately 3.3 billion DNA base pairs in the human genome.
• Identified genes and their sequences.

Earth BioGenome Project

• Sequences genomes of all eukaryotes on Earth.
• Began in 2018, aiming for completion in 10 years.
• Aimed at creating a comprehensive catalog of Earth's biodiversity.

Genome India Project

• Launches by Department of Biotechnology & Department of Science & Technology.
• Aimed at sequencing genomes of 10,000 individuals from diverse Indian populations.
• Understands genetic basis of Indian diseases; develops personalized medicine.

INDIGEN Project

• Funded by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
• Sequences genomes from various Indian ethnic groups.
• Understanding genetic variations between ethnic groups; identifying potential genes and traits.

Pan-genome Project

• Creating a map of genetic variations in a species.
• Aims to identify and analyze differences among individuals (not a single genome).

Stem Cell Therapy

• Treats medical conditions using stem cells.
• Stem cells develop into various cell types; regenerate tissues/organs.
• Treats conditions like Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, spinal cord injuries, blood disorders.

Gene Therapy

• Uses genes to treat or prevent diseases.
• Replacing faulty genes with healthy ones; introducing new genes.
• Two main types:
  • Germline: Modifies genes in germline cells (highly controversial).
  • Somatic: Modifies genes in somatic cells.
  • Ex vivo: Cells removed, modified, and returned.
  • In vivo: Genes delivered directly to cells.

RNA interference (RNAi)

• Biologically silences gene expression using small RNA molecules.
• Utilizes small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to target/degrade mRNA preventing protein production.
• Powerful tool for studying gene function, and new therapies for diseases.

Health and Biotechnology

• Biotechnology's essential role in medicine and healthcare.
• Uses living organisms or their products for societal benefit.
• Rapidly growing field with potential to revolutionize healthcare.
  • Gene therapy, stem cell therapy, drug discovery, biopharmaceutical production, diagnostic testing, personalized medicine, bioimaging.

Stem Cells (Summary)

• Cells with the capacity to develop into any cell type.
• Totipotent (any cell type, early embryo).
• Pluripotent (any cell type except extra-embryonic, later embryo).
• Multipotent (limited cell types, like blood cells).

Uses of Stem Cells

• Treating diseases/injuries, like heart disease, diabetes, and spinal cord injuries.
• Regenerating damaged tissues/organs.
• Creating new drugs/therapies.
• Ethical concerns exist regarding embryonic stem cells.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)

• Creating pluripotent stem cells by reprogramming adult stem cells.
• Introduces specific genes to restore pluripotency, potentially making personalized therapies possible.

CAR T-Cell Therapy

• Ex vivo gene therapy using patient T cells to fight cancer.
• Modifies patient's T cells with a CAR to target cancer cells.
• CAR T-cells attack and destroy cancer cells.
• Promising for some cancers; potential side effects (e.g., cytokine release syndrome, neurotoxicity).

Agriculture and Biotechnology

• Improves crop yields, pest/disease resistance, and nutrient content.
• Techniques include: traditional breeding, mutation breeding, RNAi, genetic engineering, and gene editing (like CRISPR-Cas9).

Genetically Modified (GM) Crops

• Created by inserting genes from other organisms into crops.
• Designed for pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, or higher yields.
• Potential benefits (e.g., higher nutritional value, increased yields).
• Concerns surround unforeseen consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem health, along with human health risks if not rigorously tested.
• Use is highly regulated globally.

This quiz covers essential concepts in Biotechnology relevant to the UPSC Prelims exam from 2012 to 2023. Focus on the fundamental principles and applications of biotechnology, emphasizing its significance in Science and Technology. Prepare thoroughly to enhance your understanding and score well in the exam.