Biopsychosocial Model and Ecological Systems Theory

Biopsychosocial Model

• Includes biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle factors

Ecological Systems Theory

• Bronfenbrenner's theory explains how individuals and their environments interact to influence human growth and development

Human Development

• A complex, somewhat predictable pattern of gradual changes across multiple domains that begins at conception and continues throughout the lifespan
• Normal development involves demonstrating expected developmental and physical maturation and physiological function, and accomplishing expected tasks within or across developmental domains associated with chronological age

Sigmund Freud's Psychosexual Development

• Five stages of psychosexual development that occur in a predetermined sequence, focused on the development of the child's libido
• Each stage is characterized by sexual pleasure in erogenous zones of the body
• The five stages are: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital

Oral Stage (0-18 months)

• Focus is on the mouth as the source of gratification and pleasure
• Weaning from the bottle is a key achievement in this stage
• Too much or too little gratification can lead to immature personality development and preoccupation with oral activities

Anal Stage (18 months-3 years)

• Erogenous zone moves from the mouth to the anus
• Main source of gratification is bowel and bladder control
• Toilet training is a key task in this stage

Phallic Stage (3-6 years)

• Erogenous zone is the genitalia
• Children experience pleasure associated with their genitalia and become aware of their bodies and physical differences between males and females
• Oedipus and Electra complexes develop during this stage

Latency Stage (6-12 years)

• Suppression or channeling of sexual desires toward more socially acceptable activities
• No specific erogenous zone is associated with this stage
• Failure to resolve this stage can result in inability to form healthy relationships as an adult

Genital Stage (puberty and onwards)

• Erogenous zone is the genitalia
• Individual seeks psychological detachment and independence from parents and creates meaningful relationships
• Failure to resolve this stage can result in inability to develop meaningful, healthy relationships

Erikson's Psychosocial Development

• Eight stages of psychosocial development between birth and death
• Each stage includes a unique crisis that builds on the tasks of the previous stage
• Successful resolution of the crisis at a particular stage leads to psychosocial growth and development

Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year)

• Sense of trust in self and others as the foundation of human development
• Caregivers provide security, and regard, and the infant learns trust

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years)

• Sense of independence and autonomy develops as children gain control over their bodies
• Caregivers provide encouragement, patience, and a secure environment for exploration

Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years)

• Children explore their environment and try out different roles
• Understanding of how the world works increases as they begin to behave and act with purpose

Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years)

• Children become more aware of themselves as individuals and learn complex skills
• Attitudes about work learned during childhood form the foundation for attitudes about work later in adulthood

Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence)

• Transitional stage between childhood and adulthood, characterized by rapid and dramatic physiological, emotional, and social changes
• Adolescents experiment with various behaviors, activities, beliefs, and friendships

Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)

• Individuals form intimate, committed relationships with others
• Successful resolution of this stage results in the ability to love and form lasting, meaningful relationships

Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)

• Individuals reflect on their accomplishments and engage in meaningful ways to support future generations
• Adults undertake activities and causes that benefit others

Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)

• Individuals contemplate and reflect upon their life

• Those who have few regrets and an overall sense of satisfaction and accomplishment experience a sense of fulfillment, peace, and integrity### Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

• Children go through four distinct stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational thought.

• Each stage represents a fundamental change in how children understand and organize their environment and acquire more sophisticated types of reasoning.

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

• Infants learn about the world through basic functions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening.
• By age 8 months, infants begin to demonstrate deliberate, intentional behavior.
• By age 12 months, infants become more active by shaking, throwing, or putting objects in their mouths.
• They learn that objects continue to exist even though they cannot always be seen (object permanence).
• Children begin attaching names and words to objects and learn that objects are separate and distinctive.

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

• Children can think symbolically and use their imagination and memory to engage in play, fantasy, and make-believe.
• They are egocentric, seeing themselves as the center of the universe and unable to accept or understand other points of view.
• Children learn through play, and their thinking is largely based on intuition and not completely logical.
• They may attribute feelings and motives to objects (animism).

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

• Thinking is still literal and sometimes rigid, but children are becoming more adept at using logic.
• Egocentrism gradually wanes as children have more experiences with friends and family who assert their own perspectives.
• Children begin to understand that events can be interpreted in different ways and that their opinion may not be the only one.
• Concepts of reversibility, spatiality, and conservation are developed at this stage.
• Children can classify and organize objects into categories such as length and weight.

Formal Operational Stage (Adolescence to Adulthood)

• Children's and adolescents' expansion of their abilities beyond concrete and literal thinking to abstract and hypothetical reasoning.
• Adolescents can draw logical conclusions from a set of facts, organize their thoughts, problem solve, and perform deductive reasoning.
• David Elkind's theory of adolescent egocentrism includes the imaginary audience and the personal fable.

Criticisms of Piaget's Theory

• It overestimates cognitive competence in adolescence, does not account for variability in children's performance, and undervalues the influence of culture and the environment on cognitive functioning and development.
• Other researchers have criticized Piaget's research methodology, including his small and biased sample selection.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

• Moral development refers to the changes in a person's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that influence their beliefs about right and wrong.
• Kohlberg believed that children progressively develop moral reasoning as they gain the ability to think logically.
• Moral development continued throughout the lifespan based primarily on the principle of justice.
• Kohlberg developed his theory by posing stories with ethical dilemmas to his study participants.