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Questions and Answers
What are the two monosaccharides that make up lactose?
What are the two monosaccharides that make up lactose?
Which disaccharide is formed from the breakdown of starch during digestion?
Which disaccharide is formed from the breakdown of starch during digestion?
Oligosaccharides are classified based on the number of monosaccharides they yield. How many monosaccharides do oligosaccharides yield?
Oligosaccharides are classified based on the number of monosaccharides they yield. How many monosaccharides do oligosaccharides yield?
What is the key function of sucrose in plants?
What is the key function of sucrose in plants?
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What type of linkages connect the monosaccharides in disaccharides?
What type of linkages connect the monosaccharides in disaccharides?
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Which of the following is true about trehalose?
Which of the following is true about trehalose?
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Polysaccharides are classified based on several factors, including their function. Which of the following describes their classification?
Polysaccharides are classified based on several factors, including their function. Which of the following describes their classification?
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Which term describes compounds that contain more than 10 monosaccharide units?
Which term describes compounds that contain more than 10 monosaccharide units?
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What is a monosaccharide that contains an aldehyde group called?
What is a monosaccharide that contains an aldehyde group called?
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Which monosaccharide is considered the sweetest?
Which monosaccharide is considered the sweetest?
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Which projection is used to show sugars in their open chain form?
Which projection is used to show sugars in their open chain form?
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What type of carbohydrate is formed by the linkage of two monosaccharides?
What type of carbohydrate is formed by the linkage of two monosaccharides?
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What type of bond links the monosaccharides in a disaccharide?
What type of bond links the monosaccharides in a disaccharide?
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Which process results in the formation of a disaccharide from two monosaccharides?
Which process results in the formation of a disaccharide from two monosaccharides?
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Which of the following carbohydrates consists of only a single sugar unit?
Which of the following carbohydrates consists of only a single sugar unit?
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Which of the following correctly describes a polysaccharide?
Which of the following correctly describes a polysaccharide?
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What is the molecular formula for a typical disaccharide?
What is the molecular formula for a typical disaccharide?
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Which monosaccharide is essential for the formation of nucleic acids?
Which monosaccharide is essential for the formation of nucleic acids?
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What is the main role of mucopolysaccharides in the body?
What is the main role of mucopolysaccharides in the body?
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What structural component differentiates monosaccharides like glucose and fructose?
What structural component differentiates monosaccharides like glucose and fructose?
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Which of the following carbohydrates is NOT a disaccharide?
Which of the following carbohydrates is NOT a disaccharide?
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How are oligosaccharides typically characterized?
How are oligosaccharides typically characterized?
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What type of bond links monosaccharides in the formation of disaccharides?
What type of bond links monosaccharides in the formation of disaccharides?
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What is the primary characteristic of homopolysaccharides?
What is the primary characteristic of homopolysaccharides?
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Which of these is an example of a hexose?
Which of these is an example of a hexose?
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Which of the following polysaccharides is primarily known for energy storage in plants?
Which of the following polysaccharides is primarily known for energy storage in plants?
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What type of linkage is found in cellulose?
What type of linkage is found in cellulose?
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Which of the following pairs make up hyaluronic acid?
Which of the following pairs make up hyaluronic acid?
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Which polysaccharide serves as a quick energy source during intense physical activity?
Which polysaccharide serves as a quick energy source during intense physical activity?
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What is the primary structural role of cellulose in plants?
What is the primary structural role of cellulose in plants?
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What type of polysaccharides are glycosaminoglycans classified as?
What type of polysaccharides are glycosaminoglycans classified as?
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What represents a major component of starch in plants?
What represents a major component of starch in plants?
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Which type of isomerism describes glucose and fructose?
Which type of isomerism describes glucose and fructose?
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What type of isomerism exists between D-glucose and L-glucose?
What type of isomerism exists between D-glucose and L-glucose?
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How do α-D-glucose and β-D-glucose differ?
How do α-D-glucose and β-D-glucose differ?
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What characterizes epimers in sugar chemistry?
What characterizes epimers in sugar chemistry?
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In which type of isomerism do D-glucose and D-mannose belong?
In which type of isomerism do D-glucose and D-mannose belong?
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What type of bond contributes to the branched structure of glycogen?
What type of bond contributes to the branched structure of glycogen?
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Which of the following sugars is an aldehyde?
Which of the following sugars is an aldehyde?
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What is the definition of monosaccharides?
What is the definition of monosaccharides?
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What is the primary function of chitin in insects and crustaceans?
What is the primary function of chitin in insects and crustaceans?
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Which polysaccharide is specifically associated with cushioning and lubrication in connective tissues?
Which polysaccharide is specifically associated with cushioning and lubrication in connective tissues?
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What role do glycoproteins and glycolipids play in cell surfaces?
What role do glycoproteins and glycolipids play in cell surfaces?
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Which polysaccharides are known for their gel-forming properties and are commonly used in food and cosmetics?
Which polysaccharides are known for their gel-forming properties and are commonly used in food and cosmetics?
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Which polysaccharide provides structural protection and is part of the immune response in plants?
Which polysaccharide provides structural protection and is part of the immune response in plants?
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Study Notes
Biomolecules
- Biomolecules are macromolecules, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates: Definition
- Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically in a 1:2:1 ratio (Cn(H₂O)n).
- They are vital biological macromolecules found in all living organisms, serving as a primary energy source, structural components, and are involved in various biochemical processes.
- The term "carbohydrate" comes from their general formula, which suggests they are hydrates of carbon.
- Key roles of carbohydrates include energy storage, signaling, and forming building blocks for more complex molecules.
- Carbohydrates are composed of polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or compounds that yield these derivatives via hydrolysis.
General Properties of Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically in a 1:2:1 ratio.
- They are essential for life and play diverse roles like energy storage, structural support, and signaling.
Energy Source
- Monosaccharides like glucose are rapidly metabolized to provide energy in the form of ATP during cellular respiration.
- Polysaccharides (starch and glycogen) are long-term energy storage molecules, broken down into glucose when energy is required.
- Carbohydrates provide 4 kcal/gram of energy, playing a crucial role in the human diet.
Structural Role
- Certain polysaccharides act as structural components in living organisms.
- Cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls providing rigidity and strength. Humans cannot digest cellulose due to lack of cellulase enzymes.
- Chitin is a structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of arthropods and cell walls of fungi.
Biological Functions
- Carbohydrates are stored as glycogen in animals and starch in plants, broken down to glucose for energy.
- Oligosaccharides on cell surfaces are involved in cell signaling and recognition.
- Mucopolysaccharides contribute to tissue lubrication and protection, especially in joints and the extracellular matrix.
Classification of Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are categorized based on the number of sugar units and their complexity.
- The main types are monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
- Monosaccharides are simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose).
- Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides linked together (e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose).
- Oligosaccharides are composed of 3-10 monosaccharides.
- Polysaccharides are composed of more than 10 monosaccharides. They can be linear or branched.
Structure of Carbohydrates
- Monosaccharide structure is based on the number of carbon atoms (e.g., trioses, pentoses, hexoses).
- In aqueous solutions, monosaccharides frequently exist in cyclic forms (hemiacetals or hemiketals).
Important Terms
- Asymmetric carbon atom: A carbon atom attached to four different groups or atoms.
- Penultimate (reference) carbon atom: The carbon atom adjacent to the terminal carbon, having an -OH group.
- Anomeric carbon: The carbon atom (C1 in aldoses, C2 in ketoses) that becomes part of the ring structure in cyclic sugars.
Isomerism
- Stereoisomers: Identical molecular formula, but differing in spatial arrangement. Includes enantiomers, diastereomers, and anomers.
- Enantiomers: Non-superimposable mirror images of each other.
- Diastereomers: Stereoisomers that are not mirror images.
- Anomers: Different positions of a hydroxyl group (-OH) on the anomeric carbon (C1 or C2).
Solubility
- Carbohydrates are usually soluble in water due to numerous hydroxyl groups forming hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
- Solubility generally decreases with increasing size. Small carbohydrates are more soluble.
Taste
- Simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides and disaccharides) are typically sweet.
- Fructose is the sweetest sugar.
- Larger carbohydrates like starch and cellulose lack sweetness.
Optical Activity
- Carbohydrates can rotate plane-polarized light.
- Optical activity is dependent on chiral centers (asymmetric carbons) present in the molecule.
- Classified as dextrorotatory (D) or levorotatory (L) based on direction of light rotation.
Reducing Properties
- Some monosaccharides and disaccharides are reducing agents, due to a free aldehyde group.
- Reducing agents cause color change in solutions like Benedict's solution or Fehling's solution.
- Disaccharides like sucrose lack a free aldehyde or ketone group, therefore are non-reducing sugars.
Polymer Formation
- Carbohydrates form glycosidic bonds between monosaccharides through condensation reactions.
- Release of water molecule in the linkage process forms disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides (e.g. starch, cellulose, glycogen).
- Some polysaccharides, like glycogen and amylopectin, have a branched structure due to 1,6-glycosidic bonds in addition to 1,4-glycosidic bonds.
Functions of Monosaccharides
- Glucose is a vital energy source for humans and plants.
- Plants use carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose via photosynthesis.
- Galactose is a component of milk sugar.
- Fructose is found in fruits and honey, and contributes sweetness.
- Ribose and mannose form part of nucleic acids and other co-enzymes/proteins.
Disaccharides
- Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds (alpha or beta).
- Common examples are sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
- Results from dehydration synthesis, (loss of water molecule).
Oligosaccharides
- Oligosaccharides are composed of 3-10 monosaccharide units.
- Often attached to proteins and lipids, playing roles in cell recognition and signaling.
- Do not usually exist on their own; they are part of larger structures such as glycoconjugates.
Polysaccharides
- Polysaccharides are composed of more than 10 monosaccharide units.
- They are classified as homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides based on the type of monomer units.
- Can be branched or unbranched, depending on the type of glycosidic bonds.
- Important forms include starch (plants), glycogen (animals), cellulose (plants), and chitin (exoskeletons and fungi).
Heteropolysaccharides
- Composed of two or more different types of monosaccharide units . Usually found linked to proteins and peptides.
- Important types include glycosaminoglycans like hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, and heparin.
Functions of Polysaccharides
- Energy storage: Starch and glycogen, for example.
- Structural support: Cellulose and chitin.
- Protection: Hyaluronic acid and other mucopolysaccharides.
Additional Notes
- The specific glycosidic bonds determine the structure and function of the polysaccharide.
- The different forms of isomerism (structural, stereoisomerism, and anomerism) are critical for the function of carbohydrate molecules.
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Description
This quiz covers the essential aspects of carbohydrates, including their definition, composition, and general properties. Learn about the vital roles carbohydrates play in biological processes and their significance as macromolecules. Test your knowledge of these organic compounds and their importance for life.
