Biology Mitosis Flashcards

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Questions and Answers

What is Turner syndrome?

A condition that occurs when one of the sex chromosomes is partially missing or rearranged.

What gene is known to be important for bone development and growth in Turner syndrome?

SHOX

What is Klinefelter syndrome?

A condition related to the X and Y chromosomes, often characterized by an extra copy of the X chromosome.

Klinefelter syndrome is only associated with extra Y chromosomes.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is most often the cause of Down syndrome?

Trisomy 21 Signup and view all the answers

What is mosaic Down syndrome?

A condition where individuals have an extra copy of chromosome 21 in only some of their cells. Signup and view all the answers

What is colchicine used for?

It is used for treating acute gout and familial Mediterranean fever (FMF). Signup and view all the answers

What is a Giemsa band?

A technique used to stain metaphase chromosomes for the analysis of DNA structure. Signup and view all the answers

What is a metaphase spread?

An important technique in cytogenetics used for karyotyping. Signup and view all the answers

What does gel electrophoresis do?

It separates and analyzes macromolecules based on their size and charge. Signup and view all the answers

What is a keystone species?

A plant or animal that plays a crucial role in an ecosystem's functioning. Signup and view all the answers

What is a population?

All individuals of a given species in a specific area at a certain time. Signup and view all the answers

What is Rachael Carson known for?

Her contributions to the global environmental movement and her book Silent Spring. Signup and view all the answers

Who were Watson and Crick?

James Watson and Francis Crick are known for their discovery that DNA has a double helix structure. Signup and view all the answers

Who was Rosalind Franklin?

She was a scientist whose X-ray diffraction image of DNA, called 'Photo 51,' contributed significantly to the understanding of DNA structure. Signup and view all the answers

What are the structural and chemical differences between DNA and RNA?

RNA has a ribose sugar, while DNA contains deoxyribose. RNA nucleotides have uracil instead of thymine. Signup and view all the answers

What is a codon? What is an anticodon?

A codon is a three-base sequence on mRNA that calls for a specific amino acid; an anticodon matches the codon on tRNA. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three types of RNA?

mRNA (Messenger RNA), rRNA (Ribosomal RNA), and tRNA (Transfer RNA). Signup and view all the answers

How does DNA make copies of itself?

Through a process called replication. Signup and view all the answers

What is the basic structure of DNA?

DNA is a double helix made up of deoxyribose sugar, phosphate groups, and four nitrogenous bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. Signup and view all the answers

Which parts of DNA make up the 'rungs' and 'sides'?

The rungs are made of bases, while the sides consist of a sugar and phosphate molecule. Signup and view all the answers

How are proteins made?

Through the processes of transcription and translation. Signup and view all the answers

What is a mutagen?

A mutagen is an agent that causes mutations, either by inaccurate DNA copying or external influences like chemicals or radiation. Signup and view all the answers

What are the different types of mutations?

Substitution, insertion, deletion, and frameshift mutations. Signup and view all the answers

AAA TTA CGG to TAA ATT ACG would be what type of mutation?

Frameshift mutation. Signup and view all the answers

AAA TTA CGG to AAA TTA CGA would be what type of mutation?

Substitution mutation. Signup and view all the answers

How are the types of substitution mutations different?

Silent mutations do not change the amino acid, nonsense mutations create a stop codon, and missense mutations swap one amino acid for another. Signup and view all the answers

What is methionine?

Methionine is an essential amino acid important for protein synthesis. Signup and view all the answers

What is a karyotype?

A karyotype is a complete set of human chromosomes used for diagnosing genetic conditions. Signup and view all the answers

What is nondisjunction?

The failure of chromosomes to separate during cell division, leading to abnormal distribution in daughter cells. Signup and view all the answers

What chromosome number would be found in gametes if nondisjunction occurs?

Gametes may contain 22 or 24 chromosomes instead of the normal 23. Signup and view all the answers

What are monosomy and trisomy?

Monosomy is the presence of one chromosome from a pair, and trisomy is the presence of three chromosomes instead of two. Signup and view all the answers

What chromosome determines the sex of the baby?

The sex of a baby is determined by the X and Y chromosomes. Signup and view all the answers

What are the different types of chromosomal mutations?

Deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation, and deficiency mutations. Signup and view all the answers

Define Down Syndrome, Klinefelter Syndrome, and Turner Syndrome.

They are chromosomal abnormalities causing diverse physical and developmental challenges. Signup and view all the answers

What chromosomal mutation causes Down Syndrome, Klinefelter Syndrome, and Turner Syndrome?

Down Syndrome is caused by trisomy 21, Klinefelter Syndrome results from an extra X chromosome (XXY), and Turner Syndrome is caused by missing or altered sex chromosome. Signup and view all the answers

What is mitosis?

Mitosis is a part of the cell cycle process by which chromosomes in a cell nucleus are separated into two identical sets of chromosomes, each in its own nucleus. Signup and view all the answers

What are the main goals of mitosis?

The goal of mitosis is to produce two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. Signup and view all the answers

What are the sub-stages of mitosis in order?

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Signup and view all the answers

What happens in prophase?

During prophase, the chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes. Signup and view all the answers

What happens in metaphase?

In metaphase, chromosomes are at their most condensed and coiled stage. Signup and view all the answers

What happens in anaphase?

During anaphase, chromosomes are split and sister chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell. Signup and view all the answers

What happens in telophase?

Telophase is where replicated chromosomes have been separated and are at opposite sides of the cell. Signup and view all the answers

What are somatic cells and are they diploid or haploid?

Somatic cells are any cells of the body except sperm and egg cells, and they are diploid. Signup and view all the answers

What is cytokinesis?

Cytokinesis is the physical process of cell division that divides the cytoplasm into two daughter cells. Signup and view all the answers

How is cytokinesis different in animal and plant cells?

In animal cells, the plasma membrane pinches in to separate the cytoplasm; in plant cells, a cell plate forms to divide the cell. Signup and view all the answers

What do haploid and diploid mean?

Diploid cells contain two sets of chromosomes, while haploid cells have one complete set. Signup and view all the answers

What is "n" in genetics?

n is the symbol representing one complete set of chromosomes. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of meiosis?

The purpose of meiosis is to increase genetic variation. Signup and view all the answers

What are the benefits that meiosis provides organisms?

Meiosis provides a tremendous storehouse of genetic variation that allows for adaptations to changing environments. Signup and view all the answers

Describe what happens in each stage of meiosis 1.

Meiosis I reduces the number of chromosomes by half and is where genetic recombination occurs. Signup and view all the answers

What are unique features of meiosis compared to mitosis?

Meiosis has two rounds of genetic separation and leads to genetically diverse daughter cells. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three sources of genetic recombination?

<ol> <li>Crossing over in prophase I. 2. Independent assortment. 3. Combining of chromosomes from different gametes during fertilization.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Who was Gregor Mendel and what was his work?

Gregor Mendel was a scientist known as the founder of modern genetics. Signup and view all the answers

What are Mendel's Theories of Inheritance?

Mendel developed 3 principles of inheritance based on pea plant experiments. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Law of Independent Assortment?

It states that allele pairs separate independently during gamete formation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Law of Segregation?

It states that during gamete production, two copies of each hereditary factor segregate. Signup and view all the answers

Can you complete monohybrid Punnett squares?

Yes, make sure you can complete them. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between heterozygous and homozygous?

Heterozygous means having two different alleles; homozygous means having two identical alleles. Signup and view all the answers

How do the terms "heterozygous" and "homozygous" apply to phenotypes and genotypes?

Heterozygous has different alleles; homozygous can be dominant or recessive. Signup and view all the answers

Are you able to perform crosses with traits that use simple dominance, incomplete dominance, codominance, etc?

Yes, make sure you can perform these crosses. Signup and view all the answers

Are you able to tell if a trait is completely dominant, codominant, etc., based on possible phenotypes?

Make sure you can identify these traits. Signup and view all the answers

Are you able to perform a dihybrid cross?

Make sure you can perform dihybrid crosses. Signup and view all the answers

Can you describe what happens throughout the cell during each stage of mitosis?

Mitosis divides the cell into two identical daughter cells through several stages. Signup and view all the answers

Could you identify diagrams of each stage of mitosis even if they are out of order?

Make sure you can identify these diagrams. Signup and view all the answers

How are chromatids, chromatin, chromosomes, sister chromatids, and DNA related?

DNA is organized into chromosomes that consist of chromatids during cell division. Signup and view all the answers

What is a test cross and why is it useful?

A test cross is used to determine the zygosity of a dominant phenotype. Signup and view all the answers

Be able to predict the phenotype of offspring based on the parents' genotype.

Make sure you can predict the offspring phenotype. Signup and view all the answers

Be able to predict a parent's genotype based on their offspring's genotypes.

Make sure you can predict the parent's genotype. Signup and view all the answers

What are P, F1, and F2 generations?

P generation is the parental generation; F1 is the first filial generation, and F2 is the progeny of F1. Signup and view all the answers

How do sex-linked traits work?

Sex-linked traits are carried on sex chromosomes, primarily affecting males. Signup and view all the answers

What traits have you worked with frequently (e.g., color blindness, blood types)?

Make sure you are familiar with these traits. Signup and view all the answers

Know all the definitions of your main vocab words.

Make sure you understand vocabulary thoroughly. Signup and view all the answers

What are the enzymes involved in DNA replication and their roles?

Helicase unzips DNA, primase synthesizes RNA primer, polymerase adds bases, and ligase binds nicks. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three parts of a nucleotide?

A nucleotide consists of a five-carbon ribose sugar, a phosphate molecule, and a nitrogenous base. Signup and view all the answers

Who were the scientists involved in the early discovery of DNA structure and function?

Key scientists include Frederick Miescher, Phoebus Levene, Oswald Avery, Erwin Chargaff, Rosalind Franklin, and Watson & Crick. Signup and view all the answers

Who was Griffith?

Frederick Griffith conducted an experiment in 1928 suggesting that bacteria can transfer genetic information. Signup and view all the answers

Who were Hershey and Chase?

They conducted experiments in 1952 confirming that DNA is the genetic material. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Mitosis and Cell Division

Mitosis involves the separation of chromosomes into two identical nuclei, resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells.
The four phases of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, with cytokinesis occurring concurrently.
In prophase, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope begins to break down.
Metaphase features the alignment of chromosomes at the cell's equatorial plane, maximally condensed.
During anaphase, sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell, with this phase lasting about 1% of the cell cycle.
Telophase involves the reformation of the nuclear envelope around the separated chromosomes, which decondense.
Somatic cells are diploid (2n), containing two sets of chromosomes, whereas gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid (1n).

Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is the process that divides the cytoplasm, occurring differently in plant and animal cells.
In animal cells, the plasma membrane forms a cleavage furrow, pinching the cell into two.
Plant cells form a cell plate that grows inward to separate daughter cells due to their rigid cell walls.

Meiosis and Genetic Variation

Meiosis consists of two rounds of division (meiosis I and II), reducing chromosome number by half and promoting genetic diversity.
Genetic recombination occurs during meiosis I through crossing over and independent assortment.
Meiosis results in four non-identical haploid cells, unlike mitosis, which produces two identical diploid cells.

Mendel's Theories of Inheritance

Gregor Mendel is considered the father of genetics, establishing principles of inheritance from his pea plant experiments.
The Law of Segregation states that allele pairs separate during gamete formation, while the Law of Independent Assortment states that genes for different traits segregate independently.

Genotype and Phenotype

A test cross helps determine the zygosity of a dominant phenotype by crossing it with a recessive phenotype.
Homozygous individuals carry two identical alleles for a trait, while heterozygous individuals carry two different alleles.
Phenotypes can indicate dominance patterns, such as complete dominance, incomplete dominance, and codominance.

Key Scientists in DNA Research

Frederick Miescher discovered DNA in 1869, calling it 'nuclein.'
Oswald Avery confirmed DNA as the hereditary material, while Chargaff established base pairing rules.
Rosalind Franklin's X-ray diffraction images (Photo 51) were crucial in elucidating DNA's helical structure.
Watson and Crick proposed the double helix model of DNA, awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962 along with Wilkins.

Important Terminology

Nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA, consist of a sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogenous base.
Chromatin is the DNA-protein complex, while chromosomes are condensed structures formed during cell division.
Sister chromatids are identical copies of a chromosome, linked at the centromere before division.
"n" represents a complete set of chromosomes, with diploid being 2n and haploid being n.

Genetic Recombination

Three sources of genetic variation include crossing over, independent assortment of chromosomes, and fertilization of genetically diverse gametes.
Key traits studied in genetics include color blindness and blood type inheritance, with different genetic patterns influencing their expression.### Structural and Chemical Differences Between DNA and RNA
RNA consists of ribose sugar; DNA contains deoxyribose sugar.
RNA nucleotides include uracil, while DNA nucleotides have thymine.
Structural configurations differ: RNA is usually single-stranded; DNA is a double helix.

Codons and Anticodons

Codon: A three-base sequence on mRNA that specifies an amino acid.
Anticodon: A three-base sequence on tRNA that pairs with its corresponding codon on mRNA.
tRNA functions as a bridge during protein synthesis, ensuring the correct amino acid is added.

Types of RNA and Their Functions

Messenger RNA (mRNA): Transcribes genetic information from DNA and transports it to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Found in ribosomes, directs translation of mRNA into proteins.
Transfer RNA (tRNA): Delivers amino acids to the ribosome, corresponding to each mRNA codon.

DNA Replication

Replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself.
Each existing DNA strand serves as a template for creating two identical DNA double helices.

Basic Structure of DNA

DNA is composed of nucleotides, which include deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and nitrogenous bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.

Components of DNA Structure

The "rungs" of the DNA helix are formed by base pairs (A-T, G-C).
The "sides" of the DNA ladder are composed of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate molecules.

Protein Synthesis: Transcription and Translation

Transcription transfers DNA information to mRNA in the nucleus.
Translation involves ribosomes reading the mRNA sequence and tRNA bringing corresponding amino acids for protein assembly.

Mutagens and Mutations

Mutagens are agents that cause mutations, such as chemicals or radiation.
Mutations can arise from inaccurate DNA replication or external agents damaging DNA.

Types of Mutations

Substitution: Replacement of one base with another; can lead to missense, nonsense, or silent mutations.
Insertion: Addition of extra base pairs into DNA.
Deletion: Loss of a segment of DNA.
Frameshift: Caused by insertions or deletions that disrupt the reading frame.

Specific Mutations in Examples

AAA TTA CGG to TAA ATT ACG indicates a frameshift mutation.
AAA TTA CGG to AAA TTA CGA indicates a substitution mutation.

Types of Substitution Mutations

Silent mutation: Changes a base without altering the resulting amino acid.
Nonsense mutation: Changes a codon to a stop codon, leading to truncated proteins.
Missense mutation: Changes a base pair, resulting in a different amino acid.

Methionine

Methionine is an essential amino acid, not synthesized by the body.
Plays roles in protein synthesis and fat metabolism.

Karyotyping

A laboratory technique used to examine chromosome composition in a cell.
Can detect chromosomal abnormalities such as deletions, duplications, and translocations.

Nondisjunction

The failure of chromosomes to separate properly during cell division, leading to aneuploidy.
Results can include gametes having an extra or missing chromosome.

Chromosomal Mutations and Genetic Disorders

Down Syndrome: Typically caused by trisomy 21 (three copies of chromosome 21).
Klinefelter Syndrome: Caused by an extra X chromosome in males (47,XXY).
Turner Syndrome: Related to the absence or alteration of one X chromosome (monosomy X).

Colchicine

A treatment drug for gout that disrupts the mitotic spindle, used in karyotyping to halt cell division for chromosome analysis.

Giemsa Banding

A staining method used to visualize chromosomes by highlighting specific banding patterns for identification during karyotyping.### Heterochromatic Regions
Heterochromatic regions contain AT-rich DNA and are generally gene-poor.
These areas exhibit darker staining in G-banding techniques.

Metaphase Spread

A metaphase chromosome spread is crucial in cytogenetics for karyotyping.
It aids in analyzing chromosomal numerical or structural changes.

Chromosome Centromere Positions

Familiarity with metacentric, submetacentric, and acrocentric centromeres is necessary for chromosome identification.

Gel Electrophoresis Components

Key components include agarose (medium), buffer (maintains pH), a comb (creates wells), and an electric current (drives separation).
Each component contributes to the effective separation of macromolecules.

Function of Gel Electrophoresis

Gel electrophoresis separates and analyzes macromolecules like DNA, RNA, and proteins based on size and charge.
Negative molecules migrate through a gel matrix; shorter segments move faster than longer ones due to easier passage through pores (sieving effect).
Proteins are separated mainly by charge, as gel pores are too large for size-based separation.
This technique can also separate nanoparticles.

Analyzing Gel Results

Ability to draw conclusions from gel diagram results is essential for molecular assessment.

Gattaca Film Analysis

Engagement with plot-related questions is necessary for understanding the film's themes and implications.

Bioethics Discussion

Critical discussions surrounding the bioethical issues presented in Gattaca are important for comprehension of societal implications.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors

Biotic factors: living components in an ecosystem (e.g., animals, plants, microorganisms).
Abiotic factors: non-living elements (e.g., climate, soil, water).

Keystone Species Importance

Keystone species play a unique role in maintaining ecosystem balance; their absence can dramatically alter or even collapse ecosystems.

Population, Community, Ecosystem, and Habitat Definitions

A population is a group of individuals of the same species within a specific area, demonstrating genetic variation.
A community comprises all populations in a given area, characterized by interactions and resource competition.
Ecosystems encompass both the biotic community and abiotic environment, dynamic through interrelated environmental factors.
Habitats are natural environments where organisms live, influencing their survival and behavior.

Rachel Carson's Contributions

Renowned marine biologist and conservationist known for "Silent Spring," a pivotal work in the environmental movement.
Began her career in the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries and transitioned to full-time writing in the 1950s.
Authored several bestselling books on ocean life, enhancing public awareness of environmental issues.

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Test your knowledge on mitosis with these flashcards. Learn about the process, goals, and significance of mitosis in cell division. Perfect for biology students looking to reinforce their understanding of this key cellular event.