Biology Finals Review: DNA Sequence

Biology

DNA Sequence

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is an organism's genetic material that stores genetic information.
• DNA determines how an organism looks, functions, and behaves.
• The nucleus contains DNA, which is the molecule that carries the master set of instructions for how cells function, what they produce, and when they die.
• The phosphate and sugar make up the sides (backbones) of each DNA molecule, while the rungs are made up of four different nitrogen bases (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine) organized in a specific pattern.

DNA Replication

• DNA replication is the process of making an exact copy of DNA.
• There are four enzymes involved in DNA replication: Helicase, Primease, DNA Polymerase, and Ligase.
• Helicase unzips the DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between bases.
• Primease helps the DNA Polymerase figure out where to go.
• DNA Polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to the correct bases on the original DNA strands and connects them.
• Ligase connects the lagging strands.

Mitosis

• Mitosis is the cell division that produces two identical daughter cells.
• Mitosis occurs during asexual reproduction.
• Cells divide in order to grow, replace old cells, and repair damaged tissues.
• Chromosomes are made up of protein and DNA, and are measured by the number of centromeres.
• The stages of mitosis are Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis.
• During mitosis, the number of chromosomes is reduced from 46 to 23.

Meiosis

• Meiosis is the cell division that produces four daughter cells.
• The main features of meiosis are:
  • Chromosomes are copied.
  • Cell divides twice, forming four gametes.
  • Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.
  • Gametes are an organism's reproductive cells.

Ecology

Energy Level

• Food chains can be organized into an energy pyramid.
• Trophic levels include:
  • Producers (Trophic level 1)
  • Primary consumers (Trophic level 2)
  • Secondary consumers (Trophic level 3)
  • Tertiary consumers (Trophic level 4)
• 90% of energy is lost between trophic levels, and the remaining energy is lost as heat or undigested.

Food Web

• A food web is a network of multiple food chains that interact together.
• Food webs show more interactions among producers and consumers.
• Biodiversity contributes to the sustainability of an ecosystem.

Bioaccumulation

• Bioaccumulation is the process of gathering chemicals in an organism if the rate of intake exceeds the rate of excretion.
• As the human population grows, more waste is produced.

Physics

Series and Parallel Circuits

• A series circuit is a circuit in which current can only flow along one path.
• A parallel circuit is a circuit that has at least one branch point where the current splits into two or more pathways.
• Current is the flow of electrons, measured in amps (ampere).
• Voltage is the difference in electric potential between two points, measured in volts.

Circuits and Components

• Components of a circuit include:
  • Voltmeter (measures voltage)
  • Ammeter (measures current)
  • Resistor (opposes the flow of electrons)
  • Battery (stores chemical energy)
• Ohm's Law states that voltage is equal to current multiplied by resistance.

Fossil Fuels

• Fossil fuels are non-renewable energy sources that are formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals.
• The three types of fossil fuels are coal, oil, and gas.
• Coal is a fossil fuel that is formed from the remains of trees.

Chemistry

Atoms

• The atom has a neutral charge.
• The mass of an atom is located in the nucleus.
• Electrons have no mass and are not located in the nucleus.
• The atomic number tells you how many electrons and protons there are in an atom.
• The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons added together.

Periodic Table

• The periodic table is a table of elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
• The horizontal rows are called periods, and the vertical columns are called groups.
• Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

Reproduction

• Reproduction is important for the sustainability of living things.
• There are two types of reproduction:
  • Asexual reproduction (requires only one parent, produces genetically identical offspring)
  • Sexual reproduction (requires two parents, produces genetically different offspring)
• Both types of reproduction involve the transfer of genetic information from parents to offspring.

Biology

DNA Sequence

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is an organism's genetic material that stores genetic information.
• DNA determines how an organism looks, functions, and behaves.
• The nucleus contains DNA, which is the molecule that carries the master set of instructions for how cells function, what they produce, and when they die.
• The phosphate and sugar make up the sides (backbones) of each DNA molecule, while the rungs are made up of four different nitrogen bases (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine) organized in a specific pattern.

DNA Replication

• DNA replication is the process of making an exact copy of DNA.
• There are four enzymes involved in DNA replication: Helicase, Primease, DNA Polymerase, and Ligase.
• Helicase unzips the DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between bases.
• Primease helps the DNA Polymerase figure out where to go.
• DNA Polymerase adds complementary nucleotides to the correct bases on the original DNA strands and connects them.
• Ligase connects the lagging strands.

Mitosis

• Mitosis is the cell division that produces two identical daughter cells.
• Mitosis occurs during asexual reproduction.
• Cells divide in order to grow, replace old cells, and repair damaged tissues.
• Chromosomes are made up of protein and DNA, and are measured by the number of centromeres.
• The stages of mitosis are Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis.
• During mitosis, the number of chromosomes is reduced from 46 to 23.

Meiosis

• Meiosis is the cell division that produces four daughter cells.
• The main features of meiosis are:
  • Chromosomes are copied.
  • Cell divides twice, forming four gametes.
  • Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.
  • Gametes are an organism's reproductive cells.

Ecology

Energy Level

• Food chains can be organized into an energy pyramid.
• Trophic levels include:
  • Producers (Trophic level 1)
  • Primary consumers (Trophic level 2)
  • Secondary consumers (Trophic level 3)
  • Tertiary consumers (Trophic level 4)
• 90% of energy is lost between trophic levels, and the remaining energy is lost as heat or undigested.

Food Web

• A food web is a network of multiple food chains that interact together.
• Food webs show more interactions among producers and consumers.
• Biodiversity contributes to the sustainability of an ecosystem.

Bioaccumulation

• Bioaccumulation is the process of gathering chemicals in an organism if the rate of intake exceeds the rate of excretion.
• As the human population grows, more waste is produced.

Physics

Series and Parallel Circuits

• A series circuit is a circuit in which current can only flow along one path.
• A parallel circuit is a circuit that has at least one branch point where the current splits into two or more pathways.
• Current is the flow of electrons, measured in amps (ampere).
• Voltage is the difference in electric potential between two points, measured in volts.

Circuits and Components

• Components of a circuit include:
  • Voltmeter (measures voltage)
  • Ammeter (measures current)
  • Resistor (opposes the flow of electrons)
  • Battery (stores chemical energy)
• Ohm's Law states that voltage is equal to current multiplied by resistance.

Fossil Fuels

• Fossil fuels are non-renewable energy sources that are formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals.
• The three types of fossil fuels are coal, oil, and gas.
• Coal is a fossil fuel that is formed from the remains of trees.

Chemistry

Atoms

• The atom has a neutral charge.
• The mass of an atom is located in the nucleus.
• Electrons have no mass and are not located in the nucleus.
• The atomic number tells you how many electrons and protons there are in an atom.
• The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons added together.

Periodic Table

• The periodic table is a table of elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
• The horizontal rows are called periods, and the vertical columns are called groups.
• Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

Reproduction

• Reproduction is important for the sustainability of living things.
• There are two types of reproduction:
  • Asexual reproduction (requires only one parent, produces genetically identical offspring)
  • Sexual reproduction (requires two parents, produces genetically different offspring)
• Both types of reproduction involve the transfer of genetic information from parents to offspring.