Biology Equivalency Exam Study Notes 2014

DNA is a double helix consisting of two strands of nucleotides that are held together by hydrogen bonds. Each nucleotide has a phosphate group, a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine). Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine.

The sex chromosomes are two chromosomes that determine an individual's sex. Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY). The X chromosome is bigger than the Y chromosome.

Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces two identical daughter cells from a single parent cell. Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces four gametes (sex cells) with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene. Non-disjunction is the failure of chromosomes to separate properly during cell division.

<p>An atom consists of a nucleus, made up of protons and neutrons, and electrons orbiting the nucleus. The electrons move around the nucleus in specific energy levels or orbitals, and their movement is governed by the principles of quantum mechanics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>There are three main types of bonding: ionic bonding, covalent bonding, and metallic bonding. Ionic bonding occurs when atoms transfer electrons to form charged ions that are attracted to each other. Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share electrons to form a stable molecule. Metallic bonding occurs between metal atoms and involves a sea of electrons that moves freely through the metal lattice.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means. It is made up of only one type of atom, and it is represented by a symbol on the periodic table.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Science is a systematic and logical approach to discovering and understanding how the natural world works. It involves observation, experimentation, and the formulation of testable hypotheses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Biology is the study of life and living organisms. It encompasses all aspects of life, from the smallest cells to the largest ecosystems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A hypothesis is a testable prediction or explanation for a phenomenon. It is a tentative statement that can be supported or refuted by evidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>There are several types of chemistry, including organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, biochemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, polymer chemistry, and nuclear chemistry. Each branch focuses on specific aspects of matter and its interactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Acidity is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions ($H^+$) in a solution. A solution with a high concentration of hydrogen ions is acidic. Basicity, also known as alkalinity, is a measure of the concentration of hydroxide ions ($OH^-$) in a solution. A solution with a high concentration of hydroxide ions is basic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A eukaryotic cell is a type of cell that has a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles within its cytoplasm. Prokaryotic cells are simpler and lack a nucleus and other organelles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy currency of cells. It is used to power many cellular processes, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Filtration is the movement of fluids and solutes across a membrane, driven by pressure differences. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Active transport is the movement of molecules against their concentration gradient, which requires energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A reactant is a substance that participates in a chemical reaction. A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, typically a solid dissolved in a liquid. A precipitate is a solid that forms during a chemical reaction, usually in a liquid solution. A product is a substance that is formed in a chemical reaction. A compound is a substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined. A chemical reaction is a process that involves the rearrangement of atoms and molecules to form new substances.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A homogeneous mixture has a uniform composition throughout, such as saltwater or air. A heterogeneous mixture has a non-uniform composition with distinct parts that can be easily separated, such as sand and water or oil and water.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Evolution is a gradual change in the genetic makeup of a population over time. It is driven by natural selection, where individuals with traits that make them better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those traits to their offspring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Hydrogen bonding is a strong type of intermolecular force that occurs when a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative atom, such as oxygen or nitrogen. In water ($H_2O$), hydrogen bonds form between the hydrogen atoms of one water molecule and the oxygen atom of another water molecule. In carbon dioxide ($CO_2$), hydrogen bonding does not occur because the carbon atom is not sufficiently electronegative. In carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen bonding does not occur because the molecule is linear and lacks the appropriate arrangement of atoms for hydrogen bonding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mass is the amount of matter in an object. Weight is the force of gravity acting on an object's mass. Density is the mass of a substance per unit volume. A solid has a fixed shape and volume. A liquid has a fixed volume but takes the shape of its container. A gas has no fixed shape or volume. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. A mixture is a combination of two or more substances that are not chemically combined.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms that can have a variety of shapes and sizes. They play important roles in ecosystems, such as decomposing organic matter and fixing nitrogen. Viruses are non-living entities that consist of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein coat. They can only replicate inside living cells. They cause a large number of diseases in humans, animals, and plants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Animal cells are eukaryotic cells that contain a nucleus, cytoplasm, a cell membrane, and various organelles. The nucleus contains the cell's DNA, which directs the cell's activities. The cytoplasm is the gel-like substance that fills the cell and contains the organelles. The cell membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell. Organelles, such as mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic reticulum, are specialized structures that carry out specific functions within the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The biological structures in the human body can be organized from smallest to largest as follows: atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The skeletal system provides support, protection, and movement for the body. The muscular system enables movement, maintains posture, and generates heat. The respiratory system is responsible for gas exchange (oxygen intake and carbon dioxide removal). The cardiovascular system circulates blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients and removing waste. The immune system protects the body from disease-causing microorganisms. The integumentary system (skin, hair, nails) protects the body from the environment. The endocrine system produces and secretes hormones that regulate various bodily functions. The nervous system controls and coordinates bodily functions through electrical signals. The reproductive system is responsible for sexual reproduction. The digestive system breaks down food and absorbs nutrients.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood. The heart acts as a pump, propelling blood throughout the body. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, while veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that connect arteries and veins and allow for exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products. Blood flow through the cardiovascular system follows a specific pathway, starting at the heart, traveling to the lungs for oxygenation, and returning to the heart before being pumped out to the rest of the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Blood consists of four primary components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Plasma is the liquid portion of blood that carries nutrients, hormones, and waste products. Red blood cells are responsible for carrying oxygen to the body's tissues. White blood cells are part of the immune system and fight infection. Platelets are cell fragments that help to clot blood and prevent excessive bleeding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>There are two main types of blood cells: red blood cells and white blood cells. Red blood cells are responsible for carrying oxygen to the body's tissues. White blood cells are part of the immune system and fight infection. There are several types of white blood cells, each with a specific function, including neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>There are three types of muscle in the body: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones and is responsible for voluntary movement. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of internal organs, such as the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels, and is responsible for involuntary movement. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart and is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas. It helps to regulate blood sugar levels by promoting the uptake of glucose from the bloodstream into cells, where it can be used for energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Fertilization is the union of a sperm cell and an egg cell, which results in the formation of a zygote. Ovulation is the release of an egg from the ovary. Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining if fertilization does not occur.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The nose is responsible for smelling and breathing. It contains nasal passages that filter and warm incoming air. The mouth is responsible for eating, speaking, and breathing. It contains teeth for chewing food and a tongue for tasting and speech. Hair provides insulation and protection for the body. Nails protect the tips of fingers and toes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Plants are classified into different categories based on their characteristics, including their vascularity, seed type, and flowering habits. Some common categories include non-vascular plants (mosses, liverworts), vascular plants (ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms), flowering plants (angiosperms), and non-flowering plants (gymnosperms).</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Water uptake by plants occurs through a process called transpiration. Water is absorbed by roots, which contain root hairs that increase surface area for absorption. The water then travels up the stem, through the xylem, to the leaves. Transpiration, the evaporation of water from the leaves, creates a negative pressure that draws water up the plant.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Air exchange in a leaf occurs through tiny pores called stomata. When the stomata open, carbon dioxide enters the leaf for photosynthesis, and oxygen produced during photosynthesis is released. The process is regulated by guard cells that surround the stomata.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that contain a cell wall, cytoplasm, a cell membrane, a nucleus, and various organelles. The cell wall provides structural support and protection. The cytoplasm is the gel-like substance that fills the cell and contains the organelles. The cell membrane controls what enters and leaves the cell. The nucleus contains the cell's DNA, which directs the cell's activities. Organelles, such as chloroplasts, mitochondria, and Golgi apparatus, carry out specific functions within the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate that provides structural support to plant cell walls. It is a major component of plant fibers, such as cotton and wood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male reproductive part of a flower (anther) to the female reproductive part (stigma). Pollination can occur through wind, water, or animals, such as insects or birds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose (sugar) and oxygen. Respiration is the process by which cells break down glucose in the presence of oxygen to produce energy (ATP) and release carbon dioxide and water.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (biotic factors) interacting with their non-living environment (abiotic factors). It encompasses all the interactions between living things and their physical surroundings, including energy flow, nutrient cycling, and population dynamics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

DNA is a double helix made of nucleotides (A, T, C, G).

Chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism (XX for female, XY for male).

Process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells.

Cell division that produces gametes with half the chromosome number.

Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons, with electrons moving in shells.

Types include ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds, connecting atoms.

The systematic study of the physical and natural world through observation and experimentation.

The study of living organisms and their interactions with the environment.

A testable prediction based on observations.

Includes organic, inorganic, analytical, physical, and biochemistry.

Acidity refers to the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution; basidity refers to hydroxide ions.

A complex cell with a nucleus and organelles.

ATP provides energy for cellular processes.

Movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration.

A process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.

A mixture with a uniform composition throughout.

The process by which species adapt and change over time through natural selection.

Transfer of pollen from male to female parts of flowers for reproduction.

Process by which plants convert sunlight into energy using carbon dioxide and water.

Single-celled microorganisms that can be beneficial or harmful.

A hormone that regulates blood sugar levels.

Includes red blood cells (carry oxygen), white blood cells (immune function), and platelets (clotting).

Include skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles, each with distinct functions.

Animal cells have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and organelles.

Include skeletal, muscular, respiratory, and others, each with specific functions.

A community of living organisms interacting with their environment.