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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of enzymes?
What is the primary function of enzymes?
Proteins do not lose their structure after denaturation.
Proteins do not lose their structure after denaturation.
False
What term is used to describe the process by which cells become specialized?
What term is used to describe the process by which cells become specialized?
Differentiation
Water is a ______ molecule, meaning it has an uneven charge distribution.
Water is a ______ molecule, meaning it has an uneven charge distribution.
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Match the secretory organelles with their functions:
Match the secretory organelles with their functions:
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Which of the following describes a hypotonic solution?
Which of the following describes a hypotonic solution?
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Hydrophobic substances easily dissolve in water.
Hydrophobic substances easily dissolve in water.
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What is the role of peptide bonds in proteins?
What is the role of peptide bonds in proteins?
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What holds the complementary base pairs of DNA together?
What holds the complementary base pairs of DNA together?
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Eukaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles.
Eukaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles.
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What determines the chemical properties of an amino acid?
What determines the chemical properties of an amino acid?
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Peptide bonds are formed through hydrolysis reactions.
Peptide bonds are formed through hydrolysis reactions.
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What are the two types of transport methods in cell membranes?
What are the two types of transport methods in cell membranes?
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In DNA, adenine pairs with __________.
In DNA, adenine pairs with __________.
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Name one cause of protein denaturation.
Name one cause of protein denaturation.
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Match the following organelles with their functions:
Match the following organelles with their functions:
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Cells become ______ in hypotonic solutions due to water influx.
Cells become ______ in hypotonic solutions due to water influx.
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Which of the following describe stem cells?
Which of the following describe stem cells?
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Which of the following best describes denaturation?
Which of the following best describes denaturation?
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The phospholipid bilayer is a key feature of the fluid mosaic model.
The phospholipid bilayer is a key feature of the fluid mosaic model.
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What is the term for the active transport mechanism that releases substances from cells?
What is the term for the active transport mechanism that releases substances from cells?
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Prokaryotic cells do not have a __________.
Prokaryotic cells do not have a __________.
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
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The ______ reacts as temperatures increase, potentially leading to ______.
The ______ reacts as temperatures increase, potentially leading to ______.
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Which type of stem cells can differentiate into all cell types, including those of the placenta?
Which type of stem cells can differentiate into all cell types, including those of the placenta?
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Animal cells will burst when placed in a hypotonic solution.
Animal cells will burst when placed in a hypotonic solution.
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What are the two types of proteins found in the plasma membrane?
What are the two types of proteins found in the plasma membrane?
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In the Fluid Mosaic Model, the ________ bilayer is composed of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
In the Fluid Mosaic Model, the ________ bilayer is composed of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
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Match the type of stem cell with its description:
Match the type of stem cell with its description:
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What is one advantage of cell compartmentalization?
What is one advantage of cell compartmentalization?
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Cholesterol plays a role in stabilizing the fluidity of the plasma membrane.
Cholesterol plays a role in stabilizing the fluidity of the plasma membrane.
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What happens to plant cells in a hypertonic solution?
What happens to plant cells in a hypertonic solution?
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Study Notes
DNA Structure and Function
- DNA is a double-helix structure
- The backbone is made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate molecules
- Nitrogenous bases pair as follows: adenine (A) with thymine (T), and cytosine (C) with guanine (G)
- DNA strands are antiparallel (one runs 5' to 3', the other 3' to 5')
- Hydrogen bonds hold complementary bases together
- Nucleotide: Basic unit of DNA
- Base Pairing: A-T and C-G
- Antiparallel: Opposite directions of DNA strands
- Hydrogen Bond: Weak bond between bases
Cell Structure and Organelles
- Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
- Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized, with organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, and Golgi apparatus
- Key organelle functions:
- Ribosomes: Protein synthesis
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins
- Lysosomes: Digests macromolecules and debris
- Mitochondria: ATP production via cellular respiration
- Prokaryote/Eukaryote: Types of cells
- Organelle: Specialized cell structure
- Cytoplasm: Jelly-like fluid where reactions occur
Membrane Structure and Transport
- The fluid mosaic model: phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
- Transport methods:
- Passive Transport: Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated (no energy required).
- Active Transport: Requires energy (e.g., protein pumps).
- Endocytosis/Exocytosis: Materials move into/out of cells via vesicles.
- Hydrophilic substances attract water; hydrophobic substances repel water
- Phospholipid: Molecule forming the bilayer
- Osmosis: Movement of water from high to low water potential.
- Protein Pump: Active transport protein
- Hypotonic/Hypertonic: Water movement into or out of cells
Stem Cells and Cell Differentiation
- Stem cells can divide and differentiate into specialized cells
- Types of stem cells:
- Totipotent: Can form all cell types (including placental/embryo)
- Pluripotent: Can form most cell types (except placental/embryo)
- Multipotent: Can form a limited range of cells (e.g., blood cells)
- Stem cells are key in growth, repair, and medical therapies
- Specialization: Development into specific cell types
- Differentiation: Process by which cells become specialized
- Therapeutic Cloning: Producing stem cells for treatment
Enzymes and Proteins
- Proteins are made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
- Protein denaturation occurs due to temperature, pH, or mechanical stress
- Enzymes speed up chemical reactions and lower activation energy
- Peptide bonds form during condensation reactions
- Peptide Bond: Link between amino acids
- Denaturation: Loss of protein structure/function
- Active Site: Region of an enzyme that binds substrates
Water and its Properties
- Water is a polar molecule, forming hydrogen bonds
- Properties of water: cohesion, adhesion, and high heat capacity
- High latent heat of vaporization, Universal solvent, Density anomaly (ice is less dense than liquid water), Transparency, High surface tension, Capillary action
- Hydrophilic substances dissolve in water, hydrophobic substances do not
- Cohesion: Water molecules sticking together
- Adhesion: Water sticking to other substances
- Polar: Uneven charge distribution in a molecule
Experimental Techniques and Skills
- Centrifugation separates substances based on density
- Hypotonic solutions cause cells to swell; hypertonic solutions cause them to shrink
- Use diagrams to label prokaryotic cells, plasma membranes, and organelles
- Data interpretation and evaluation are crucial for experimental analysis
- Centrifugation: Separation technique
- Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration outside the cell
- Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration outside the cell
Secretory Cell and Organelle Functions
- Structure and function of organelles involved in protein synthesis and secretion:
- Ribosomes: Synthesis of polypeptide chains
- Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Modifies and folds polypeptides
- Golgi Apparatus: Processes and packages proteins into vesicles for secretion
- Vesicles: Transports proteins within and out of the cell
- Transport mechanisms: Exocytosis (active transport mechanism for releasing proteins)
- Advantages of cell compartmentalization:
- Efficient separation of incompatible reactions
- Increases efficiency by localizing enzymes and substrates
Types of Stem Cells
- Definitions and differences between:
- Totipotent Stem Cells: Can differentiate into all cell types, including placental cells
- Pluripotent Stem Cells: Can differentiate into most cell types (e.g., embryonic stem cells)
- Multipotent Stem Cells: Can differentiate into a limited range of cell types (e.g., blood cells)
- Real-world applications of stem cells in medicine (e.g., regenerative therapies)
Osmosis and Water Potential
- Why water moves from high to low water potential (osmosis principles)
- Effects of osmosis on plant and animal cells:
- Plant Cells in Hypotonic Solutions: Become turgid (cell wall prevents bursting)
- Animal Cells in Hypotonic Solutions: Burst (no cell wall)
- Plant and Animal Cells in Hypertonic Solutions: Shrink (plasmolysis in plants, crenation in animals)
Fluid Mosaic Model
- Components of the plasma membrane:
- Phospholipid bilayer: Hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
- Proteins: Integral (e.g., pumps, channels) and peripheral proteins
- Cholesterol: Stabilizes membrane fluidity
- Carbohydrates: Attached to proteins or lipids (glycoproteins, glycolipids) for cell recognition
Protein Structure and Denaturation
- Amino acid structure: Unique R group (side chain) determines chemical properties
- Amino and carboxyl groups
- Central alpha carbon atom
- Formation of peptide bonds through condensation reactions
- Causes of protein denaturation: High temperature, extreme pH, or mechanical stress
- Effects of denaturation: Loss of tertiary/quaternary structure and function
Data Interpretation and Experimental Design
- Key functions of life (e.g., metabolism, excretion) as demonstrated by experimental data
- Analysis of diagrams or graphs related to:
- Osmosis experiments with animal/plant cells
- Enzyme activity under varying conditions (e.g., temperature or pH)
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Description
Explore the fundamental concepts of DNA structure and function, including the double-helix formation, nucleotide pairing, and antiparallel strands. Additionally, discover the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, along with the key organelles and their functions. Test your knowledge and enhance your understanding of these biological essentials.
