Biology Concepts

Biology & Living Things

• Biology centers on the scientific study of living organisms and their interactions within ecosystems.
• Biology aims to understand the origin, characteristics, life processes, and relationships of living things, also addressing their adaptation to changing environments and resulting evolution.
• Evolution stands as a key concept in the field of biology.
• Biologists investigate life across various levels of organization, from molecular biology to populations.
• A living thing, also known as an organism, constitutes an individual biological system.
• All living things are composed of cells, which serve as the basic units of life.

Characteristics

• Living things share basic characteristics distinguishing them from nonliving entities.
• These characteristics manifest differently among organisms but serve the same biological needs.

Cell Composition

• All living organisms consist of cells, the fundamental units capable of performing life activities.
• Single-celled organisms are unicellular, including archaea and bacteria
• Multi-celled organisms are multicellular, like fungi, plants, and animals.
• Multicellular organisms feature cells specialized for specific functions but retain basic cellular activities similar to unicellular organisms.

Movement

• Movement is key for living things, enabling environmental interaction, survival, and reproduction.
• Organisms move to find food, shelter, or evade predators.
• Movement can either be active or passive.
• Active movement involves shifting position in search of resources.
• Passive movement entails a part of the body moving in response to internal or external factors.
• Plant movement in response to light is phototropism, while response to gravity is geotropism.

Nutrition

• Living things require energy for survival and activities, obtained through nutrition.
• Autotrophs, like plants, produce their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
• Animals obtain energy by consuming other organisms and can be detritivores, carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, parasites, insectivores, or filter feeders.

Reproduction

• Reproduction is a core biological function that ensures the continuation of life for each species, with natural reproduction occurring between members of the same species.
• Reproduction can either be sexual involving fusion of genetic material from two parents or asexual involving a single parent.
• Some organisms can reproduce both asexually and sexually.
• Asexual reproduction passes identical genetic material to the next generation.
• Sexual reproduction generates variation in offspring, which is crucial for ecosystem function.

Growth and Development

• Living things grow in size and complexity.
• Growth is the irreversible increase in size.
• Development refers to alterations and transformations during an organism's life cycle, culminating in its distinctive form, structure, and function.
• Unicellular organisms grow by cell enlargement.
• Multicellular organisms grow by cell division.

Sensitivity

• All living things sense and respond to environmental changes through sensory mechanisms, essential for survival in finding food, avoiding danger, and reproduction.
• Changes can result from external or internal stimuli, including touch, temperature, light, and chemicals.

Respiration

• Respiration is a cellular biochemical process where organisms get energy.
• Cells use oxygen to break down glucose and produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which provides energy and releases carbon dioxide.
• All living things, from single-celled to multicellular organisms, perform respiration.
• Respiration can be aerobic, occurring with oxygen to synthesize ATP, or anaerobic, occurring without oxygen.

Evolution and Adaptation

• Living organisms undergo evolution through genetic changes and adaptations.
• Evolutionary processes such as mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection contribute to life's diversity and enable organisms to adapt to their environment, both individually and as populations.

Homeostasis

• Living things maintain a stable internal environment.
• Homeostasis regulates bodily functions like temperature, blood sugar, and water balance.

Taxonomy of Living Things

• Taxonomy classifies organisms into hierarchical groups based on shared traits, using structural, genetic, and cellular organization.
• Biological features used in classification include cell arrangement, symmetry, coelom, and system types.

Types of Classification

• Natural classification is based on taxonomic traits like anatomy, biochemistry, cytology, morphology, and physiology.
• Phylogenetic classification is based on genetic and phylogenetic relationships.
• Artifical classification is based on observable characteristics.

Importance of Biological Classification

• Biological classification is important as it provides insight into evolutionary history and enhances the scientific study of organisms.
• This helps properly identify organisms, and helps to determine the position of the organism.
• Conservationists can protect biodiversity, and researchers can assess ecosystem health, by identifying and categorizing species.
• Understanding relationships helps study biology, behavior, ecology, and genetics.
• Taxonomy establishes universally accepted names, improving identification among researchers.

History of Classification

• Early classification dates back to ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and China.
• Theophrastus and others provided the morphological classification of plants and animals.
• Carolus Clausius and Albertus Magnus classified species with a focus on plants and herbs during the Middle Ages.
• Explores, naturalists, and botanists collected and documented species, renewing interest in the natural world during the Renaissance period.
• Andrea Cesalpino developed a plant classification, and John Ray introduced the concept of species and genera.
• Carl Linnaeus, the father of modern taxonomy, devised a hierarchical system, and introduced binomial nomenclature in "Systema Naturae" (1735).
• Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, detailed in "On the Origin of Species" (1859), revolutionized taxonomy.
• Morphology, molecules, and ecology integrate into modern taxonomy for phylogenetic trees.
• Advancements continue with technologies like DNA sequencing, bioinformatics, and computational biology.
• The Barcode of Life Initiative and Tree of Life Project accelerate taxonomic discovery and classification.

Genomic Taxonomy

• Genomic tools can classify animals by the observed biomolecular substances, to classify animals in the evolutionary tree of life.
• Tools in genomic taxonomy:
  • Barcode Gene to identify organisms through a small gene segment
  • Next Generation Sequencing to sequence entire organism genomes
  • Single Cell Sequencing to explore genetic diversity in a single cell
  • Metagenomics to study collective DNA in ecosystems

Applying Genomics to Classify

• Genomic classification helps understand how species are related and evolved, identifing new species.
• Genomic classification can aid the protection of endangered species and their habitats, and lead to personalized medicine.
• The method can design new organisms or improve existing ones in synthetic biology, used in environmental monitoring.
• This can also help find extraterrestrial life.

Taxonomic Grouping

• The Carl Linnaean system, using natural, artificial, and phylogenetic classifications, has eight major levels.
• Domain is the first level of classification, into Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya

Domain Bacteria

• Bacteria are microscopic single-celled prokaryotic organisms.
• Bacteria form in different shapes like bacilli (rod-shaped), cocci (spherical), and spirilla (spiral).
• Aerobic bacteria need oxygen for energy, and anaerobic bacteria do not.
• Domain bacteria include cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and proteobacteria phyla.
• Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic bacteria in wide range of habitats.
• Anabaena enriches soil with nitrogen and is a producer in aquatic habitats.
• Escherichia coli is proteobacteria used in research, aiding digestion.

Importance of Bacteria

• Bacteria decompose organic matter into compounds for reuse by plants and organisms.
• Bacteria form symbiotic relationships, and aid digestion in the human gut.
• Bacteria aid digestion of cellulose in ruminants and protect from pathogens.
• Bacteria are used in medicine and industry, and become a vital food chain part, breaking down compounds.

Domain Archaea

• Domain archaea are single-celled prokaryotic organisms, different from bacteria and eukaryotes.
• Most archaea are extremophiles in harsh conditions, and some live in the human gut and oceans.
• Archaea get energy using methane, sulfur, and hydrogen, and create methane gas.
• Domain archaea include methanogens like Methanobacterium thermoaurotrophicum, halophiles like Halobacteria salinarum, thermophiles like Pyrococcus fariosus, and acidophiles like Sulfolobus acidocaldarius

Differences Between Bacteria and Archaea

• Their cell walls differ from bacteria.
• Their cell membranes differ, made of unique lipids with ether linkages.
• Genetic code used by archaea varies from bacteria and eukaryotes.
• The rRNA structure of archaea is distinct from bacteria.

Importance of Archaea

• Archaea play key roles in Earth's ecosystems, contributing to atmospheric methane production.
• Archaea can help clean up contaminated environments, and understand biochemical diversity.
• The organisms can help scientists reduce methane emissions.

Domain Eukarya

• Eukarya have a true nucleus, include membrane-bound organelles, and genetic material (DNA).
• Organism examples are protists, fungi, plants, and animals, plus microtubules and microfilaments for cell structure and movement.

Domain Eukarya and its Importance

• The domain's primary producers are plants and some protists, which serve as energy food for living organisms.
• Consumers such as animals break down organic materials, and move energy. Eukarya break down matter for nutrients

Moneran

• Monera are the simplest living things, bacteria and archaea, unicellular organisms, which play key roles in cycling, breaking down organic matter.
• Bacteria live in habitats such as soil, water, air, and within organisms.
• Archaea can survive in extreme environments, the human gut.

Microorganism Discovery

• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek used a microscope in the 17th century and called them animalcules.
• Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani showed the role of microbes in spontaneous generation experiments, refuting spontaneous generation.
• Louis Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation, and demonstrated fermentation and disease.
• Robert Koch developed methods to isolate bacteria that links germs to diseases, and Joseph Lister introduced antiseptics, and germ theory.
• The germ theory declined infections diseases which were associated with hygienic practices, development antibiotics and vaccines.

Germ Theory of Disease

• Diseases result from microorganisms, such as fungi, protazoa, and viruses.
• Pathogens invade other animals and then those functions cause disease symtoms disrupting the normal functioning of animals.

Kingdom Protista

• Protista are a diverse group of unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes with a complex history.
• Kingdom Protista is polyphyletic, and they include organisms with both autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms.
• They span every habitat, and they contribute to primary production.
• Examples are dinoflagellates, diatoms, paramecium, volvox.
• Protists are primary producers, consumers, and decomposers

Kingdom Fungi

• Kingdom of eukaryotes encompass multicellular organisms.
• Fungi decompose and play key ecological roles.
• The kingdom fungi grouped by their reproduction:
  • Zygomycetes reproduce via spores formed in zygosporangia, known as bread molds.
  • Ascomycetes produce sexually with asci containing ascospores, examples are yeasts, morels.
  • Basidiomycetes include fungi that are bioluminescent reproduce via basidiospores.
  • Deuteromycetes produce asexually, such as Penicillium.

Kingdom Fungi Characteristics and Importance

• Contain a true nucleus by enclosing DNA in membrane.
• Exhibit heterotrophy by symbiotic relationships.
• Fungi are important for industry, medicine, and the environment as symbiotic relationship in symbiosis.

Kingdom Plantae

• Kingdom Plantae organisms synthesize energy as plants.
• Kingdom Plantae support the foundation by:
  • Multicellular eukaryotic organisms feature cellulose cell walls.
  • Autotrophic organisms depend chlorophyll in chloroplasts and convert energy, as well as carbon dioxide, and water.
  • Alternation of generations including modes of reproduction
  • Embryophytes help the seeds and spores.
  • Classified by evolutionary history

Plantae Classifications

• Bryophyta are non-vascular plants
• Tracheophyta are plants like divided into lycophytes and pteridophytes, seed-bearing gymnosperms, angiosperms of monocots.
• Plants form the base of food, and climate stabilization by stabilizing soil, providing nesting sites.
• They provide drugs for diseases and renewable resources to fuel.

Kingdom Animalia

• Kingdom Animalia has a wide range of animals, and morphological, behavioral, and ecological adaptations.
• Animalia can range from ocean depths, land to mountains and roles include prey, deomposers, invertebrae, vertabraes.

Invertebrates

• These species have hard exoskeletons such as shell, or skeletons which can have materials carbonate. These are clasified in the the following phyla.
• General Characteristics:
  • Phyla can be primitive.
  • Asymmetric in symmetry but mostly radial.
  • A porous body allows water flow, making filter feeders.
  • Mesohyl supports the sponge made of small needle like structures and collagen fibers. The ecological of phyla Porifera provides a habitat for aquatic species such as fish, and sponge have pharmaceutical and medicinal properties.
• Cnidaria are vertebrates.
• Nerve net, have symmetry also reproductive by budding and by the realease of sperm/egg in water.

Phylum Ecological Roles

• carnivores that use their stinging cells for pray. Many cnidarians are marine reefs which allow habitiat. With the Anemones relationship with algae.
• Phylum are soft unsgementd bodies, live freshwater mostly through contractions in body but also the digestive system is not through a single opening for food intake.
• ladderlike with sensory in light and chemicals they process both sexual organs. Free living decomposition of organic matter to animals.

Phylum Nematoda

• most multi cellular animals on earth by bilateral symmetry with a nervous system by the mouth.
• psecdocoelomo filled for support. Soil vertilitiy and animals can aid in soil
• parasitic to worms

Phylum Molusca

• soft bodies calcium , usclaur to cover mass/ organs. Most are diecous, by feeding on detirivoires, or feeders.
• Invertebrate impacts water for feeding, with polltants decline habitat degradation. Through record for record for lifespan and study past condition in earth

Diagram of a arthropoda

• A joinr animal. Exodkeletion is protection. Bilateral oragnized in segments such as legs is a charcteristic

Class insecta

• 3 or more legs or pairs that distinguish them from other. Exo skeleton that protects, they can under go methapmophisis. Insects have a main import role for food and ecosytem, acting as pollinators
• Resperation aiding that tubes, and some separate parts to organ
• arthropods that detect chemical

Class Arachnida

• 4 prs of legs, disticnt body parts and exoskeleton. Most spiders predatroy, spiders or prey. Breaks fown organic material . Mites

Diagram of lobster

• Have a 2 part atennde
• arthropids
• Exoslektions
• Crustracan

Myrapedia Class

• The chittin is hard, support protection for terrestrial through trachea via legs reproduces se.
• Detiitores for dead orgnism food and energy. Through aerations

Reasons For Arthorpods

• joint enable them fly. exo skeleton support. Resistatnt to toxins. Diverse nature. Metahmpoysis at life

Phylum chindermata

• spiney name skin made calcium
• unique system
• botom dwelling in water

Ecologicial Importance of star fish echionderns. Sea cucumners deteris

Annelida Phylun

• body is segments. Body is bilatera with well diveloupment. Digesty system cpmletrs

ecoligicial imporance the detiroivies and also monintres.

Chordates

Charaterized by: nockhorrd, and dorsal chord charteristcs- preshcnece of notchorrd- supporting orgnaism. Dorsal cord-transsion of impulse, and vertibrate prhogeal- feeding and respiration. pos-atnal-gives balance and defense

Sub phulums Urachodata- bodies with covering of the tunic. lose 4 characteristics when grown.

• marine feederes and retroggresis metamorphisis like loss of complex stuff for simpler ones. Ex-tunacstes and sea squirts

Class cephalochordata: burrowing feeds, charactertics throuoght life cycle sand mareine envrionemnt

• selnered

Phylum vetebration

• posssess vervteral column with a replavemntof the notohcor in adulthood. spina. reprodution
• triplastocs, well deloped organs, and cental nerovys symtrem
• ghly mobile, move thoruhg environment
• classes

Class Aghmath- the jawlwss with cylindrat body, and caralgingi

• unique feeding by filkled mouth. mostly marine fishes. e x - hagsihsh class Chondrothyes- cartlinagenous and pairing fins. sttreamline for swiimng. have scalr for swimming
• heteiroceal tall. constantely replaced teeth catniivores
• respiure with gills, cold blooodeds,
• sharks

class osteches- bony fishes, paring fins and scal es swim bladder for b

• lteral with homiecercal toat is nearly equal,
• repriation with gils, laterial
• salmen

Clas smpthibibons

• duan habitat.
• have wwebbed feet
• smooth and mosit permbaelyes
• 4 wweelm
• toxc sikhn
• extreenal fertl
• frog Salamndes

class reptlllia- cuws. intternal fert. scales. ecehtotheem rwprire longues. behvaior like baskinn in them sln torotsies etc AVEs have for wing and skeltons. and lungs. mammary is glglands. 4 chamber haet high brain. a musclara

• the skinn is the mammas.
• most partel care from. younf EVOLUTIONary
• they introudevebt column fossiol hhow adatied

chrodarres infleucne w

• class chrodatae they introce class choate

Test your knowledge of core biological concepts. Questions cover ATP's role, evolution, homeostasis, and biological classification. Explore taxonomy, evolutionary history, and contributions of Carl Linnaeus.