Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary role of photosynthesis in plants?
What is the primary role of photosynthesis in plants?
- To produce lactic acid for fermentation.
- To capture light energy and store it as chemical energy. (correct)
- To release oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide.
- To convert sugars into ethanol.
Which fermentation process primarily involves the conversion of malic acid?
Which fermentation process primarily involves the conversion of malic acid?
- Malolactic Fermentation (correct)
- Ethanol Fermentation
- Lactic Acid Fermentation
- Butyric Acid Fermentation
In which part of the chloroplasts does the Calvin Cycle take place?
In which part of the chloroplasts does the Calvin Cycle take place?
- Within the chlorophyll molecules.
- In the stroma outside of the grana. (correct)
- In the thylakoids where light reactions occur.
- In the outer membrane of the chloroplast.
What is produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis?
What is produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis?
Which type of fermentation creates butyric acid?
Which type of fermentation creates butyric acid?
What type of flower contains both the stamen and pistil?
What type of flower contains both the stamen and pistil?
Which plant hormone is primarily involved in promoting cell division?
Which plant hormone is primarily involved in promoting cell division?
What role does ethylene play in plants?
What role does ethylene play in plants?
Which hormone acts as a stress hormone in plants?
Which hormone acts as a stress hormone in plants?
What type of flower is missing either stamen or pistil?
What type of flower is missing either stamen or pistil?
Which process is regulated by gibberellin in plants?
Which process is regulated by gibberellin in plants?
In plants, which type of root is typically characterized by a single main root?
In plants, which type of root is typically characterized by a single main root?
Which hormone is associated with the regulation of flowering in plants?
Which hormone is associated with the regulation of flowering in plants?
What is the expected outcome for sons if the mother carries a sex-linked recessive trait?
What is the expected outcome for sons if the mother carries a sex-linked recessive trait?
Which part of a plant is involved in vegetative growth?
Which part of a plant is involved in vegetative growth?
Which process results in the production of lactic acid?
Which process results in the production of lactic acid?
How many ATP molecules are generated from anaerobic respiration of one mole of glucose?
How many ATP molecules are generated from anaerobic respiration of one mole of glucose?
What does the term 'apetalous' refer to in flowers?
What does the term 'apetalous' refer to in flowers?
When a father has a sex-linked recessive trait, to whom will he transmit the mutant allele?
When a father has a sex-linked recessive trait, to whom will he transmit the mutant allele?
What type of bacteria is involved in acetic acid fermentation?
What type of bacteria is involved in acetic acid fermentation?
What is the net ATP yield of aerobic respiration per mole of glucose?
What is the net ATP yield of aerobic respiration per mole of glucose?
In which type of fermentation do microorganisms convert sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide?
In which type of fermentation do microorganisms convert sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide?
What is a Punnett square primarily used for?
What is a Punnett square primarily used for?
Which trait expression is observed in males for hemizygous conditions?
Which trait expression is observed in males for hemizygous conditions?
What best describes the inheritance pattern when a mother has a sex-linked recessive trait?
What best describes the inheritance pattern when a mother has a sex-linked recessive trait?
What does the Law of Segregation state regarding gene pairs?
What does the Law of Segregation state regarding gene pairs?
What best describes multiple alleles?
What best describes multiple alleles?
How are traits expressed in females who are carriers of sex-linked recessive disorders?
How are traits expressed in females who are carriers of sex-linked recessive disorders?
What phenomenon occurs when one gene alters the expression of another gene?
What phenomenon occurs when one gene alters the expression of another gene?
Which of the following is true regarding first filial generation (F1)?
Which of the following is true regarding first filial generation (F1)?
In the context of incomplete dominance, what occurs?
In the context of incomplete dominance, what occurs?
Which of the following traits is commonly associated with sex-linked recessive disorders?
Which of the following traits is commonly associated with sex-linked recessive disorders?
What is an example of multiple alleles affecting a trait?
What is an example of multiple alleles affecting a trait?
What is codominance?
What is codominance?
Which of the following describes incomplete dominance?
Which of the following describes incomplete dominance?
When a gamete is formed, how are the members of gene pairs distributed according to Mendel's law?
When a gamete is formed, how are the members of gene pairs distributed according to Mendel's law?
In a monohybrid cross, how many pairs of contrasting genes are involved?
In a monohybrid cross, how many pairs of contrasting genes are involved?
What is the outcome of self-destruction during cell division due to checkpoint failure?
What is the outcome of self-destruction during cell division due to checkpoint failure?
Which of the following terms describes the total genetic makeup of an individual?
Which of the following terms describes the total genetic makeup of an individual?
In a dihybrid cross, how many pairs of genes are examined?
In a dihybrid cross, how many pairs of genes are examined?
Which expression describes homozygous individuals?
Which expression describes homozygous individuals?
What defines an allele?
What defines an allele?
What is the term for the generation of parents in a genetic cross?
What is the term for the generation of parents in a genetic cross?
Which type of flower possesses both male and female reproductive parts?
Which type of flower possesses both male and female reproductive parts?
What role does auxin play in plants?
What role does auxin play in plants?
Which plant hormone is known for promoting cell division in roots and shoots?
Which plant hormone is known for promoting cell division in roots and shoots?
What characterizes an imperfect flower?
What characterizes an imperfect flower?
Which plant hormone is primarily involved in fruit ripening?
Which plant hormone is primarily involved in fruit ripening?
Which type of root system is characterized by a single main root?
Which type of root system is characterized by a single main root?
What is the primary role of gibberellin in plants?
What is the primary role of gibberellin in plants?
What term describes flowers that lack both petals and sepals?
What term describes flowers that lack both petals and sepals?
What process converts sugars into ethanol and carbon dioxide through yeast cells?
What process converts sugars into ethanol and carbon dioxide through yeast cells?
What is the primary function of the light reactions in photosynthesis?
What is the primary function of the light reactions in photosynthesis?
What is the main outcome of the carbon-fixing reactions during photosynthesis?
What is the main outcome of the carbon-fixing reactions during photosynthesis?
Which type of fermentation is commonly used in winemaking to improve flavor by reducing acidity?
Which type of fermentation is commonly used in winemaking to improve flavor by reducing acidity?
What key molecule is produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis that is vital for the Calvin cycle?
What key molecule is produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis that is vital for the Calvin cycle?
How many ATP molecules are typically produced from aerobic respiration per mole of glucose?
How many ATP molecules are typically produced from aerobic respiration per mole of glucose?
What is produced as a byproduct of lactic acid fermentation?
What is produced as a byproduct of lactic acid fermentation?
What is the primary function of a Punnett square?
What is the primary function of a Punnett square?
Which pattern of transmission occurs if a father has a sex-linked recessive trait?
Which pattern of transmission occurs if a father has a sex-linked recessive trait?
What types of organisms primarily perform alcoholic fermentation?
What types of organisms primarily perform alcoholic fermentation?
What is produced during acetic acid fermentation?
What is produced during acetic acid fermentation?
What must be present for aerobic respiration to occur?
What must be present for aerobic respiration to occur?
Which of the following fermentation processes is characterized by the conversion of sugars into lactic acid?
Which of the following fermentation processes is characterized by the conversion of sugars into lactic acid?
What type of respiration results in the production of only 2 ATP per mole of glucose?
What type of respiration results in the production of only 2 ATP per mole of glucose?
In the context of sex-linked traits, if a mother has the trait, how will it be transmitted to her offspring?
In the context of sex-linked traits, if a mother has the trait, how will it be transmitted to her offspring?
What is the consequence of a checkpoint failure in the cell cycle?
What is the consequence of a checkpoint failure in the cell cycle?
How is codominance different from incomplete dominance?
How is codominance different from incomplete dominance?
What describes the genotype of an individual?
What describes the genotype of an individual?
What will occur during apoptosis?
What will occur during apoptosis?
Which term describes an individual with two identical alleles?
Which term describes an individual with two identical alleles?
Which inheritance pattern involves a blending of traits from two parents?
Which inheritance pattern involves a blending of traits from two parents?
In a dihybrid cross, how many pairs of contrasting genes are analyzed?
In a dihybrid cross, how many pairs of contrasting genes are analyzed?
What is a gene?
What is a gene?
What occurs during the process of a monohybrid cross?
What occurs during the process of a monohybrid cross?
What is meant by the term 'allele'?
What is meant by the term 'allele'?
What does the Law of Segregation state in terms of gene pairs during gamete formation?
What does the Law of Segregation state in terms of gene pairs during gamete formation?
Which scenario accurately describes the expression of sex-linked recessive disorders in females?
Which scenario accurately describes the expression of sex-linked recessive disorders in females?
What is a characteristic of the first filial generation (F1)?
What is a characteristic of the first filial generation (F1)?
In the context of human genetics, what does epistasis refer to?
In the context of human genetics, what does epistasis refer to?
What is an example of a condition that involves multiple alleles affecting a trait?
What is an example of a condition that involves multiple alleles affecting a trait?
What happens during gamete formation according to Mendel's law?
What happens during gamete formation according to Mendel's law?
What defines the phenomenon of sex-linked recessive traits?
What defines the phenomenon of sex-linked recessive traits?
Which statement correctly identifies the relationship of F1 to F2 generations?
Which statement correctly identifies the relationship of F1 to F2 generations?
What is a notable consequence of epistasis in genetics?
What is a notable consequence of epistasis in genetics?
Which part of a perfect flower is absent in an imperfect flower?
Which part of a perfect flower is absent in an imperfect flower?
What role does cytokinin play in plant physiology?
What role does cytokinin play in plant physiology?
Which of the following plant hormones is primarily responsible for regulating stem elongation?
Which of the following plant hormones is primarily responsible for regulating stem elongation?
Which type of root system is generally characterized by multiple thin roots of similar size?
Which type of root system is generally characterized by multiple thin roots of similar size?
What is the main function of ethylene in plants?
What is the main function of ethylene in plants?
Which of the following statements is true regarding naked flowers?
Which of the following statements is true regarding naked flowers?
Abscisic acid serves which function in plants?
Abscisic acid serves which function in plants?
What defines a perfect flower?
What defines a perfect flower?
What is the process called when a cell self-destructs due to checkpoint failure or physical damage?
What is the process called when a cell self-destructs due to checkpoint failure or physical damage?
What is the result of a monohybrid cross?
What is the result of a monohybrid cross?
What describes the external appearance of an individual in genetics?
What describes the external appearance of an individual in genetics?
In the context of genetics, what does homozygous refer to?
In the context of genetics, what does homozygous refer to?
Which inheritance pattern involves both contrasting genes being expressed?
Which inheritance pattern involves both contrasting genes being expressed?
What are alleles?
What are alleles?
What does the law of independent assortment state about gene distribution in gametes?
What does the law of independent assortment state about gene distribution in gametes?
What type of genetic cross involves two pairs of contrasting genes?
What type of genetic cross involves two pairs of contrasting genes?
Which term best defines the total genetic makeup of an individual?
Which term best defines the total genetic makeup of an individual?
Which term refers to the sum total of all the genes present in an individual?
Which term refers to the sum total of all the genes present in an individual?
What is the primary product of ethanol fermentation by yeast cells?
What is the primary product of ethanol fermentation by yeast cells?
Which reaction within photosynthesis takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts?
Which reaction within photosynthesis takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts?
What is the primary role of malolactic fermentation in winemaking?
What is the primary role of malolactic fermentation in winemaking?
What energy form is produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis?
What energy form is produced during the light reactions of photosynthesis?
Which bacteria are involved in butyric acid fermentation?
Which bacteria are involved in butyric acid fermentation?
What does the Law of Segregation state about gene pairs during gamete formation?
What does the Law of Segregation state about gene pairs during gamete formation?
What are the offsprings of a cross referred to as in genetic terminology?
What are the offsprings of a cross referred to as in genetic terminology?
Which of the following best describes multiple alleles?
Which of the following best describes multiple alleles?
What is an example of a trait that is influenced by multiple alleles?
What is an example of a trait that is influenced by multiple alleles?
What role do epistasis and multiple alleles play in genetics?
What role do epistasis and multiple alleles play in genetics?
In terms of human genetics, what does X-linked recessive trait expression depend on for females?
In terms of human genetics, what does X-linked recessive trait expression depend on for females?
In human genetics, which disorder is an example of a sex-linked recessive trait?
In human genetics, which disorder is an example of a sex-linked recessive trait?
How does the presence of multiple alleles affect blood type inheritance?
How does the presence of multiple alleles affect blood type inheritance?
What defines the second filial generation (F2)?
What defines the second filial generation (F2)?
What is the expected outcome for daughters if a father carries a sex-linked recessive trait?
What is the expected outcome for daughters if a father carries a sex-linked recessive trait?
In which type of fermentation do microorganisms convert sugars into lactic acid?
In which type of fermentation do microorganisms convert sugars into lactic acid?
What is the primary product of alcoholic fermentation?
What is the primary product of alcoholic fermentation?
What happens when a mother carries a sex-linked recessive trait?
What happens when a mother carries a sex-linked recessive trait?
Which of the following correctly describes anaerobic respiration?
Which of the following correctly describes anaerobic respiration?
Which of these is a characteristic of aerobic respiration?
Which of these is a characteristic of aerobic respiration?
What type of fermentation involves the conversion of ethanol into acetic acid?
What type of fermentation involves the conversion of ethanol into acetic acid?
What is the role of a Punnett square in genetics?
What is the role of a Punnett square in genetics?
In terms of hemizygous conditions, which statement is true for males?
In terms of hemizygous conditions, which statement is true for males?
Which product is primarily associated with the process of lactic acid fermentation?
Which product is primarily associated with the process of lactic acid fermentation?
What occurs during the light reactions of photosynthesis?
What occurs during the light reactions of photosynthesis?
What is the primary outcome of the Calvin Cycle?
What is the primary outcome of the Calvin Cycle?
Which type of fermentation is primarily used in winemaking?
Which type of fermentation is primarily used in winemaking?
What is the role of Clostridium bacteria in fermentation?
What is the role of Clostridium bacteria in fermentation?
During cellular respiration, what do yeast cells primarily convert sugars into?
During cellular respiration, what do yeast cells primarily convert sugars into?
What role does auxin play in plant growth?
What role does auxin play in plant growth?
Which plant hormone is known to act as a stress hormone?
Which plant hormone is known to act as a stress hormone?
What characterizes a naked flower?
What characterizes a naked flower?
Which plant hormone primarily promotes cell division?
Which plant hormone primarily promotes cell division?
Which type of root system is characterized by numerous fibrous roots?
Which type of root system is characterized by numerous fibrous roots?
What distinguishes an imperfect flower?
What distinguishes an imperfect flower?
Which hormone is involved in the regulation of stem elongation and flowering?
Which hormone is involved in the regulation of stem elongation and flowering?
What is the result of codominance in offspring?
What is the result of codominance in offspring?
What occurs during apoptosis?
What occurs during apoptosis?
How does the Law of Independent Assortment influence gene distribution?
How does the Law of Independent Assortment influence gene distribution?
What does it mean for an individual to be homozygous?
What does it mean for an individual to be homozygous?
What defines a dihybrid cross in genetics?
What defines a dihybrid cross in genetics?
What type of mutation leads to apoptosis during cell division?
What type of mutation leads to apoptosis during cell division?
Which term refers to the genetic makeup of an individual?
Which term refers to the genetic makeup of an individual?
What is the main feature of incomplete dominance in genetic inheritance?
What is the main feature of incomplete dominance in genetic inheritance?
What does the term 'genosome' refer to in genetics?
What does the term 'genosome' refer to in genetics?
What is the role of immune cells during apoptosis?
What is the role of immune cells during apoptosis?
What describes the first filial generation (F1) in genetics?
What describes the first filial generation (F1) in genetics?
How does the Law of Segregation affect gametes during formation?
How does the Law of Segregation affect gametes during formation?
What is an example of a phenomenon where one gene influences the expression of another?
What is an example of a phenomenon where one gene influences the expression of another?
Which statement is true regarding sex-linked recessive disorders in females?
Which statement is true regarding sex-linked recessive disorders in females?
What does the term 'multiple alleles' refer to in genetics?
What does the term 'multiple alleles' refer to in genetics?
What is the end product of glycolysis?
What is the end product of glycolysis?
In which generation do grandchildren appear in the context of Mendelian genetics?
In which generation do grandchildren appear in the context of Mendelian genetics?
What happens to the alleles during gamete formation according to Mendel's findings?
What happens to the alleles during gamete formation according to Mendel's findings?
Which process completely breaks down glucose to produce coenzyme molecules?
Which process completely breaks down glucose to produce coenzyme molecules?
Which type of respiration results in the production of 36 ATP per mole of glucose?
Which type of respiration results in the production of 36 ATP per mole of glucose?
What is the main final product of lactic acid fermentation?
What is the main final product of lactic acid fermentation?
Which type of fermentation involves yeast converting sugars into alcohol?
Which type of fermentation involves yeast converting sugars into alcohol?
In which scenario will a father with a sex-linked recessive trait pass on the mutant allele?
In which scenario will a father with a sex-linked recessive trait pass on the mutant allele?
What is the purpose of a Punnett square?
What is the purpose of a Punnett square?
What is the net ATP yield for anaerobic respiration of one mole of glucose?
What is the net ATP yield for anaerobic respiration of one mole of glucose?
What condition results in trait expression in males for hemizygous conditions?
What condition results in trait expression in males for hemizygous conditions?
Which of these is NOT a type of fermentation mentioned?
Which of these is NOT a type of fermentation mentioned?
How many FADH2 molecules are produced during the Krebs cycle per glucose molecule oxidized?
How many FADH2 molecules are produced during the Krebs cycle per glucose molecule oxidized?
Flashcards
Filial Generation (F)
Filial Generation (F)
The offspring of a genetic cross.
F1 Generation
F1 Generation
The first generation of offspring from a genetic cross.
F2 Generation
F2 Generation
The second generation of offspring from a genetic cross.
Law of Segregation
Law of Segregation
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Multiple Alleles
Multiple Alleles
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Sex-Linked Recessive Disorder
Sex-Linked Recessive Disorder
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Heterozygous
Heterozygous
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Epistasis
Epistasis
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Law of Independent Assortment
Law of Independent Assortment
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Checkpoint Failure
Checkpoint Failure
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Apoptosis
Apoptosis
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Codominance
Codominance
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Incomplete Dominance
Incomplete Dominance
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Gene
Gene
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Genosome
Genosome
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Allele
Allele
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Homozygous
Homozygous
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Sex-Linked Recessive Trait
Sex-Linked Recessive Trait
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Punnett Square
Punnett Square
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Redox Reactions
Redox Reactions
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Electrochemical Gradient
Electrochemical Gradient
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Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic Respiration
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Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
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Fermentation
Fermentation
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Alcoholic Fermentation
Alcoholic Fermentation
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Lactic Acid Fermentation
Lactic Acid Fermentation
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Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
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Light Reactions
Light Reactions
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Carbon-Fixing Reactions
Carbon-Fixing Reactions
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Ethanol Fermentation
Ethanol Fermentation
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Malolactic Fermentation
Malolactic Fermentation
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Perfect flower
Perfect flower
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Imperfect flower
Imperfect flower
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Staminate flower
Staminate flower
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Pistillate flower
Pistillate flower
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Naked flower
Naked flower
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Auxin's role
Auxin's role
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Cytokinin's role
Cytokinin's role
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Gibberellin's role
Gibberellin's role
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Ethylene's role
Ethylene's role
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Abscisic acid's role
Abscisic acid's role
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Complete Flower
Complete Flower
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Incomplete Flower
Incomplete Flower
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Phenotype
Phenotype
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What happens if a checkpoint fails during the cell cycle?
What happens if a checkpoint fails during the cell cycle?
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What is Glycolysis?
What is Glycolysis?
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What is the Kreb's Cycle?
What is the Kreb's Cycle?
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What is Anaerobic Respiration?
What is Anaerobic Respiration?
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ETC (Electron Transport Chain)
ETC (Electron Transport Chain)
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Monohybrid Cross
Monohybrid Cross
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Dihybrid Cross
Dihybrid Cross
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Glycolysis
Glycolysis
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Kreb's Cycle
Kreb's Cycle
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Photosynthesis Equation
Photosynthesis Equation
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What is Ethanol Fermentation?
What is Ethanol Fermentation?
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What is Malolactic Fermentation?
What is Malolactic Fermentation?
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Auxin
Auxin
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Cytokinin
Cytokinin
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Gibberellin
Gibberellin
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Ethylene
Ethylene
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Hemizygous Condition
Hemizygous Condition
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Study Notes
Tissues
- Tissues are groups of similar cells adapted for specific functions.
- Plant tissues have simpler organization and many are dead, growth is contained.
- Animal tissues are complex, more living tissues, and growth is not limited.
Plant Parts
- Shoot system: Includes stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits.
- Root system: Includes roots.
- Taproots: Found in dicots, primary root grows and becomes stout, secondary roots grow from the primary.
- Fibrous roots: Found in monocots, roots from lower nodes.
- Adventitious roots: Develop from shoots.
- Flower: For reproduction, parts include stamen, filament, anther, stigma, style, ovary, ovule, petal, and sepal.
- Complete flower: Contains both stamen and pistil
- Incomplete flower: Lacks either stamen or pistil.
- Naked flower: Without petals or sepals.
Animal Tissues
- Epithelial: For protection, absorption, secretion, and sensory.
- Connective: For support, binding, transport, and immunity.
- Muscular: For movement.
- Nervous: For nerve impulse conduction and body coordination.
Muscle Tissues
- Skeletal: Striated, tubular, multi-nucleated, voluntary, attached to skeleton.
- Smooth: Non-striated, spindle-shaped, uni-nucleated, involuntary, internal organs.
- Cardiac: Striated, branched, uni-nucleated, involuntary, heart.
Connective Tissues
- Connective tissue proper (Loose, dense regular, dense irregular, adipose, reticular)
- Cartilage (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage)
- Bone
- Blood
Plant Tissues
- Meristematic: Actively dividing cells, at root and shoot tips.
- Permanent: Do not divide further
Simple Permanent Tissue and its types:
- Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma Complex Permanent Tissue and its types:
- Xylem, Phloem
Stems
- Woody: Persistent woody stems, strong, covered with bark, tall, perennial plants.
- Herbaceous: No persistent woody stem, flexible, green, short, annual or perennial.
Fruits
- Fleshy: With pulp (e.g., apple, papaya, lemon).
- Dry: Without pulp (e.g., groundnut, peas).
Plant Hormones
- Auxin: Growth coordination, plant development.
- Cytokinin: Cell division in roots and shoots.
- Gibberellin: Growth, development (stem elongation, germination, etc.).
- Ethylene: Fruit ripening.
- Abscisic acid: Stress hormone (stomata closure, shoot growth inhibition).
Plant Response to Stimuli
- Phototropism: Response to light.
- Gravitropism: Response to gravity.
- Geotropism: Response to gravity.
- Hydrotropism: Response to water.
- Thigmotropism: Response to touch.
- Chemotropism: Response to chemicals.
Cell Division
-
Mitosis: Produces two identical diploid daughter cells (somatic cells: growth, repair).
-
Meiosis: Produces four non-identical haploid daughter cells (gametes: reproduction).
-
Stages of Mitosis: Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis
-
Stages of Meiosis: Interphase, Prophase I (Synapsis, Crossing-over), Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Cytokinesis, Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II, Cytokinesis.
Mitosis & Meiosis
- Phases of mitosis (PMAT) & cytokinesis.
- Phases of meiosis.
- Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis
- Importance to the animal body.
Genetics
- Gene: Functional unit of DNA.
- Genosome: Total genes in an organism.
- Allele: Variant form of a gene.
- Homozygous: Identical alleles.
- Heterozygous: Non-identical alleles.
- Genotype: Genetic makeup.
- Phenotype: Observable traits.
- Monohybrid: Single trait.
- Dihybrid: Two traits.
- Polyhybrid: Multiple traits.
- Law of Segregation: During gamete formation, alleles separate.
- Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes separate independently.
- Multiple Alleles: Multiple possible alleles for a gene (e.g., ABO blood typing).
- Codominance: Both alleles are expressed (e.g., AB blood type).
- Incomplete dominance: Offspring blend parental traits (e.g., red x white = pink).
- Epistasis: One gene modifies another's expression.
- Sex-linked recessive disorders: traits associated with sex chromosomes (red-green color blindness, hemophilia).
- Patterns for transmission of Sex-linked Traits.
Respiration
- Equation: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP
- Types: Aerobic (with oxygen), Anaerobic (without oxygen).
- Stages: Glycolysis, Pyruvate oxidation, Citric acid cycle, Oxidative phosphorylation.
Photosynthesis
- Equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Light Energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
- Stages: Light reactions (thylakoid membrane) and Carbon-fixing reactions (stroma).
Fermentation
- Types: Alcoholic, lactic acid, acetic acid, ethanol, malolactic, butyric acid.
Punnett Square
- Diagram to predict offspring genotypes.
Cell Cycle Checkpoints
- G₁ Checkpoint: Checks for nutrients, growth factors, and DNA damage.
- G₂ Checkpoint: Checks for cell size and DNA replication.
- Metaphase Checkpoint: Checks chromosome spindle attachment.
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