Biology Chapter on Reproduction and Meiosis

The passing of characteristics from parents to offspring through genes.

A genetically determined trait or feature, like eye color or hair texture.

A segment of DNA found on a chromosome that carries genetic information.

New organisms produced by one or more parents.

The influence of a person's genetic makeup on their development.

The influence of environmental factors on a person's development.

Reproduction involving a single parent, producing offspring genetically identical to itself.

A type of asexual reproduction where a single-celled organism divides into two identical daughter cells.

The process by which organisms produce gametes, resulting in cells with half the number of chromosomes.

Sexual reproduction requires finding a mate, which can be time-consuming and expose organisms to risks.

Cells with half the normal number of chromosomes. In humans, this is 23 chromosomes.

Cells with a full set of chromosomes. In humans, this is 46 chromosomes.

The male reproductive cell produced in the testes.

The female reproductive cell produced in the ovaries.

The process of evolution driven by variations in traits that make some organisms better adapted to their environment.

The process of change in a population over time, driven by natural selection.

A type of asexual reproduction where a new individual is formed from a fragment or piece of the parent organism.

A type of asexual reproduction where a new individual is formed from a specialized bud or outgrowth on the parent organism.

A type of asexual reproduction where a new individual is formed from a specialized stem that grows horizontally along the ground, producing new plants at intervals.

A type of asexual reproduction where a new individual is formed from a specialized underground stem that stores food.

A type of asexual reproduction where a new individual is formed from a specialized bud that grows on the roots of a plant.

A type of asexual reproduction where a portion of one plant is grafted onto the rootstock of another plant.

The first stage of meiosis where chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane disappears, centrioles move to opposite poles, and homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis) to exchange genetic material through crossing over.

The second stage where homologous chromosome pairs line up at the center of the cell, ready to be pulled apart.

Spindle fibers shorten, pulling homologous chromosome pairs to opposite poles of the cell, reducing the chromosome number by half.

The final stage of the first meiotic division where the chromosomes reach the poles of the cell, nuclear membrane reforms, and the cell divides (cytokinesis) into two daughter cells.

The second meiotic division, similar to mitosis, where sister chromatids are separated, resulting in four haploid gametes.

The first stage of meiosis II where chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, and the nuclear membrane breaks down.

The second stage of meiosis II where chromosomes line up at the center of the cell, ready for separation.

The third stage of meiosis II where spindle fibers shorten, separating sister chromatids and pulling them to opposite poles of the cell.

The union of a sperm cell and an egg cell, resulting in the formation of a zygote.

A fertilized egg cell, the first stage of a new organism.

The process of dividing a zygote into multiple cells, the first stage of embryonic development.

A hollow ball of cells formed during early embryonic development.

The process of transferring pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

The part of the flower where pollen lands.

The pollen tube grows down the style to reach the ovule.

The fusion of the pollen grain's nucleus and the egg cell's nucleus.

The chromosomes received from the father.

The chromosomes received from the mother.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid, a molecule that carries genetic information in the form of a double helix.

A subunit of DNA, composed of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. They pair up specifically: A with T, and C with G.

The two strands of DNA are twisted around each other, resembling a ladder. The sugar-phosphate backbone forms the sides, and nitrogenous bases form the rungs.

They bond through hydrogen bonds, forming weak connections that allow the two strands of DNA to separate during replication.

They bond through covalent bonds which are stronger than hydrogen bonds and help to form the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA.

Adenine (A) specifically pairs with thymine (T) and guanine (G) specifically pairs with cytosine (C).

Replication is the process by which a DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.

The process of replicating DNA, creating an identical copy of the original DNA molecule.

Large molecules made up of chains of amino acids. They play crucial roles in building cells, tissues, and carrying out various biological processes.

A type of nucleic acid that functions as a messenger carrying genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm for protein synthesis.

A permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene or chromosome. It can occur due to errors in DNA replication or exposure to mutagens.

Any factor that increases the risk of mutations, such as radiation, smoking, and certain chemicals.

The process where homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material during meiosis, increasing genetic diversity.

The stage of the cell cycle where the cell grows and copies its DNA in preparation for division.

The division of the cytoplasm of a cell, which occurs after nuclear division.

The uncondensed form of DNA found in the nucleus of a cell during interphase.

The condensed form of DNA that becomes visible during mitosis.

During DNA replication, the two strands of the DNA molecule separate, and each strand serves as a template for the creation of a new complementary strand. This results in two identical DNA molecules.

In DNA, Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T), and Guanine (G) always pairs with Cytosine (C). These base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds.

A sequence of DNA can be copied to create a complimentary strand by matching each base with its corresponding partner. For example, the complimentary strand of AGCTAGGGC is TCGATCCCG.

The process of copying DNA is crucial for cell division and the transmission of genetic information to offspring. It ensures that each new cell receives an accurate copy of the DNA.

The two strands of DNA are antiparallel, meaning they run in opposite directions. One strand runs from 5' to 3', while the other runs from 3' to 5'.

DNA replication involves several enzymes like DNA polymerase which adds nucleotides to the growing DNA strand, and helicase which separates the DNA strands.

DNA replication is a semi-conservative process. Each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand.

The structure that holds sister chromatids together. It is also the point of attachment for spindle fibers during cell division.

The outermost layer of a prokaryotic cell. It provides structural support and protection from the environment.

A thin, flexible membrane that encloses the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell. It controls what enters and exits the cell.

The region within a prokaryotic cell that contains the genetic material (DNA). It is not enclosed by a membrane.

Small, circular pieces of DNA found in some prokaryotes. They carry genes for specific traits like antibiotic resistance.

Short, hair-like structures on the surface of some prokaryotes. They aid in attachment to surfaces, sharing genetic information, and sometimes movement.

A gel-like substance inside the cell membrane of a prokaryote that contains the cell's organelles and other components.

Tiny structures in prokaryotes responsible for protein synthesis.

Long, whip-like structures that extend from the surface of some prokaryotes. They help the cell move.

Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, responsible for producing energy in the form of ATP through cellular respiration.

The cell membrane is a selectively permeable barrier that controls what enters and exits the cell, allowing only certain molecules to pass through.

The nucleus is the control center of the cell, containing the cell's DNA and regulating cellular activities.

Ribosomes are the protein factories of the cell, responsible for synthesizing proteins according to instructions from the DNA.

The Golgi apparatus is a packaging and distribution center, modifying and sorting proteins for export or use within the cell.

Lysosomes are the recycling centers of the cell, containing enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranes involved in protein synthesis (rough ER) and lipid synthesis (smooth ER).

Vacuoles are storage compartments that hold water, nutrients, and waste products, which are larger in plant cells compared to animal cells.

The theory stating that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

A simple cell lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, found primarily in bacteria and archaea.

A sticky, protective layer surrounding some prokaryotic cells, aiding in attachment and defense.

A rigid, supportive layer surrounding some prokaryotic cells, providing structure and protection.

The outer boundary of a prokaryotic cell, regulating the passage of substances in and out.

The gel-like substance filling the cell, containing various structures and chemicals.