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Questions and Answers
What is homeostasis?
What is homeostasis?
Osmoregulation is a mechanism that adjusts the internal temperature of organisms.
Osmoregulation is a mechanism that adjusts the internal temperature of organisms.
False
What process do organisms use to transform energy from the sun into chemical energy?
What process do organisms use to transform energy from the sun into chemical energy?
photosynthesis
Multicellular organisms grow by accumulating many cells through __________.
Multicellular organisms grow by accumulating many cells through __________.
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Match the regulatory mechanisms with their functions:
Match the regulatory mechanisms with their functions:
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Which of the following functional groups is NOT present in amino acids?
Which of the following functional groups is NOT present in amino acids?
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Proteins are polymers formed by amino acids linked via hydrogen bonds.
Proteins are polymers formed by amino acids linked via hydrogen bonds.
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What type of bond links two amino acids together?
What type of bond links two amino acids together?
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Proteins can vary in length from about ______ amino acids to several thousand amino acids.
Proteins can vary in length from about ______ amino acids to several thousand amino acids.
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Match the type of protein with its primary function:
Match the type of protein with its primary function:
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Which level of protein structure is characterized by a linear sequence of amino acids?
Which level of protein structure is characterized by a linear sequence of amino acids?
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Enzymes are a type of protein that assist in chemical reactions.
Enzymes are a type of protein that assist in chemical reactions.
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of nucleic acids?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of nucleic acids?
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The sugar component of DNA is ribose.
The sugar component of DNA is ribose.
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What are the two major types of nucleic acids?
What are the two major types of nucleic acids?
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In the structure of nucleotides, the phosphate group, ___, and nitrogenous base are the three main components.
In the structure of nucleotides, the phosphate group, ___, and nitrogenous base are the three main components.
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Match the type of RNA to its function:
Match the type of RNA to its function:
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Which nitrogenous base is found in RNA but not in DNA?
Which nitrogenous base is found in RNA but not in DNA?
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DNA is primarily responsible for protein synthesis.
DNA is primarily responsible for protein synthesis.
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List the three components of a nucleotide.
List the three components of a nucleotide.
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Medicines should be stored in ____ bottles to prevent light interactions.
Medicines should be stored in ____ bottles to prevent light interactions.
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What is the primary function of ribosomes?
What is the primary function of ribosomes?
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Only ribosomes in the cytosol are involved in producing proteins for secretion.
Only ribosomes in the cytosol are involved in producing proteins for secretion.
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What process involves the transfer of coded information from DNA to mRNA?
What process involves the transfer of coded information from DNA to mRNA?
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The structure within the nucleus responsible for ribosome component production is called the ______.
The structure within the nucleus responsible for ribosome component production is called the ______.
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Match the following cellular structures with their functions:
Match the following cellular structures with their functions:
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Where are ribosomal components synthesized in eukaryotic cells?
Where are ribosomal components synthesized in eukaryotic cells?
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MRNA exits the nucleus through nuclear pores to reach the cytoplasm.
MRNA exits the nucleus through nuclear pores to reach the cytoplasm.
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What type of RNA binds to ribosomes to direct protein synthesis?
What type of RNA binds to ribosomes to direct protein synthesis?
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Ribosomes can either be free in the ______ or attached to the ______.
Ribosomes can either be free in the ______ or attached to the ______.
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Study Notes
BIO F 111: General Biology
- This course introduces major biological principles & topics.
- It covers the relationship between living organisms & their environment at the molecular level.
- The scope includes wide applications in industry, medicine, and human health.
Biology and Engineering
- Biomimicry and Innovation
- Sustainable Design
- Human Factor and Ergonomics
- Biotechnology and Healthcare
- Interdisciplinary Collaboration
Scope and Objective
- Provides a broad introduction to major biological principles and topics.
- Investigates the relationship of living organisms with their environment at the molecular level.
- Aims for a comprehensive understanding of core biological principles and their diverse applications in industry, medicine, and human health.
Books
- Textbook (TB): Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology (5th edition) by Simon, E.J. et. al., 2016, Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd., Noida
- Reference Books (RB):
- Concepts in Biology (14th edition, BITS-Pilani Custom Edition 2012) by Enger, E.D., Ross, F.C., and David B. Bailey, 2012, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi
- Biology (9th ed.) by Raven, P.H., et. al., 2012, Singapore: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd.
- Biology: Concepts and Applications (6th ed.) by Starr, Cecie, 2007, India: Thomson Brooks/Cole
Introduction to Biology and its scope
- Provides a wide variety of career opportunities in science.
- Education, development and protection of plants, animals and the environment.
- Discusses knowledge in various fields.
- Important for scientific discoveries and innovations.
Biology - Scientific study of life
- Scientific methods for studying life.
- An approach to understand the natural world based on inquiry, analysis, and survey.
- Involves searching for information, explanations, and answers to specific questions.
Main Scientific Approaches
- Discovery Science
- Relies on verifiable observations and measurements of structures and processes.
- Collection of data, e.g., Charles Darwin's work.
- Hypothesis Driven Science
- Uses observations to form questions and seeks answers using experimental investigations with the scientific method.
- Mostly involves explaining nature through proposed explanations (hypotheses) tested through experiments.
Scientific Method
- Suggests a broad outline for investigations.
- Includes tentative insights into the natural world.
- Experiments are repeatedly conducted and hypothesis can be revised or rejected.
- Illustrates with everyday experiences like troubleshooting a TV remote
- Demonstrates the applications of scientific method using an example of seasonal leaf drop in maple trees.
- Discusses the applicability of the scientific method in identifying the reason for the non-functioning of a TV remote.
Applying Scientific Method
- Observation (e.g., maple trees in autumn)
- Question (e.g., why do leaves fall)
- Hypothesis (e.g., cold weather causes leaf loss)
- Prediction (e.g., if conditions are warm, trees will not lose leaves)
- Experiment (e.g., grow maple trees in a controlled environment)
Hypothesis & Theory
- Facts from verifiable observations and repeatable experimental results are prerequisites of science.
- Comprehensive explanations (supported by substantial evidence) constitute a scientific theory- a well-tested explanation for observed phenomena in various fields of science.
- Theories are broad in scope compared to hypotheses; theories explain various observations.
Properties of Life- Order
- Complex but highly organised systems with levels.
- Coordinated structures formed of one or more cells.
- Fundamental units of life.
Regulation
- Outside environment may change drastically but the internal environment is maintained at a stable state.
- Homeostasis maintains internal environment stability.
- Osmoregulation and thermal regulation are examples of regulation mechanisms.
Growth and Development
- DNA controls the pattern of growth and development.
- Living organisms undergo regulated growth and development starting from a single cell to trillions of cells.
- Anabolic pathways are crucial for building large molecules like proteins and DNA and thus play a major role in growth.
Energy Processing
- All organisms use a source of energy.
- Examples of energy processing:
- Some organisms capture energy from the sun (photosynthesis).
- Others use chemical energy from molecules they take in (e.g., cellular respiration).
- Energy transformations from different forms (e.g., food chain) are crucial for metabolic processes within living cells.
Response to the Environment
- All organisms respond or react to environmental stimuli.
- Response to stimuli varies based on organisms and can range from tiny bacteria reacting to chemicals to complex interactions like plant growth in response to light (tropism).
Reproduction
- Propagation of their own kind.
- Ensures survival and growth of the population's continuing existance
- Single-celled organisms (binary fission) use different methods to multiply.
Evolution
- Populations undergo evolution and genetic makeup can be altered over time.
- Evolutionary processes adapt organisms to their environment to ensure better functioning and survival.
Major Themes in Biology
- Evolution and natural selection
- Structure/function relationship
- Information flow
- Energy transformations
- Interconnections within biological systems
- Discusses how these themes are visible across different biological organizational levels.
Theme 1: Evolution
- Natural selection does not produce changes; it edits existing variations.
- Important examples of how natural selection can lead to observed adaptations are evolution of fur color in bears, beak size changes in finches over seasons and development of antibiotic resistance.
Adaptation
- Natural selection results in the production of certain adaptations.
Applications of Natural Selection
- Artificial Selection (e.g., breeding plants)
Theme 2: The Relationship of Structure to Function
- This theme studies the correlation between structure and function at every level in biological systems.
- Examines how different parts of an organ or structure work.
Theme 3: Information Flow (Transmission of Biological Information)
- Describes the flow of information, from genetic information in DNA to RNA to proteins, and how this directs and controls cellular activities.
Theme 4: Pathways that transform energy and matter
- Describes the ways organisms transfer energy through their environment and within their respective ecosystems.
Theme 5: Interconnections within biological systems
- Discusses the interconnectedness of biological systems at all levels.
- This includes connections between molecules.
- Organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities and ecosystems.
- The study of how organisms interact with the environment defines ecosystems.
- The totality of all ecosystems constitutes the biosphere.
Diversity of Life
- Taxonomy and its use in classifying vast numbers of organisms based on characteristics
- General grouping.
Taxonomy
- Branch of biology responsible for naming and classifying species.
- Categorization systems.
- Use morphology, behavior, genetics, and biochemical observations to identify and classify organisms.
Classification of Living Forms
- Levels of classification (Domain, Kingdom, etc.).
- The three main domains (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya).
- Relationship between classification groups (Eubacteria, Archaea, Eukarya).
Domain Eubacteria & Archaea
- Prokaryotic cells, single-cell organisms
- Lack nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
- Cell walls contain Peptidoglycan
- Extremophiles (extreme environments)
Domain Eukarya
- Mostly multicellular organisms
- Distinguished by means of obtaining food (e.g., photosynthesis or heterotrophy)
- Kingdoms (Plant, Fungi, Animal)
The Microscopic World of Cells
- Cell theory states that all living things are composed of cells and that all cells come from earlier cells
- Different sizes of cells like human cells (10-100μm), viruses, bacteria, Ribosomes, proteins, lipids, and atoms
The Two Major Categories of Cells
- Prokaryotic cells (e.g., Bacteria, Archaea) are usually smaller and have simpler structure.
- Eukaryotic cells (e.g., protists, plants, fungi, animals) contain membrane-bound organelles (e.g., nucleus)
Cell Structures (Prokaryotes/Eukaryotes)
- Cell wall: a rigid structure outside the cell membrane that protects the cell and maintains its shape.
- Cell membrane: a thin layer encasing the cytoplasm.
- Pili: Attachment structures on cell surface
- Flagella: whip-like structures for motility.
- Capsules: slippery substances for protection
- Ribosomes: build proteins based on the DNA instructions. ==
An Overview of Eukaryotic Cells
- The cytoplasm is present between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
- It contains various organelles.
- Plant cells have chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
- Animal cells contain lysosomes for digestion.
- Plant cells have cell walls for rigidity and support.
The Endomembrane System
- The endomembrane system is a complex series of interconnected membranes that work together to synthesize and distribute cell products.
- The system includes the nuclear envelope (nuclear membranes), the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles.
- Components are physically connected or linked by sacs made of membranes.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Rough ER produces proteins for secretion or for membranes
- Smooth ER produces lipids and steroids
- The ER consists of interconnected membranes
- Rough ER has ribosomes attached to it
- Smooth ER has no ribosomes attached to it
The Golgi Apparatus
- A stack of flattened membrane sacs
- Modifies proteins synthesised in the ER
- Packages and sorts proteins for secretion or transport to other locations in the cell.
- Enzymes within modify proteins during transit
- The shipping side of a Golgi stack acts as a depot
Lysosomes
- Breakdown large molecules (proteins, polysaccharides, fats, nucleic acids)
- Vesicles that bud off from Golgi apparatus
- Crucial for waste breakdown and recycling
- Found in animal cells.
Vacuoles
- Large sacs made of membrane that bud off from the ER or Golgi apparatus
- Specific functions vary greatly (e.g., storage, absorption of water)
- Contractile vacuole for maintaining water homeostasis
- Central vacuole for storing nutrients, pigments, and waste products
Mitochondria
- Are found in almost all eukaryotic cells
- Produce ATP from the energy of food molecules
- Involved in cellular respiration
- Have their own DNA (mtDNA)— circular
- Double membrane; the inner membrane is highly folded into cristae, maximizing enzyme placement
- Evolved from ancient free-living prokaryotes
Chloroplasts
- Sites of photosynthesis
- Contain their own DNA (cpDNA)
The Plasma Membrane
- Composed mainly of phospholipids and proteins
- Creates a selectively permeable barrier
- Keeps unwanted polar molecules out
- Essential to cellular function
Cell Surfaces
- Protection
- Support
- Help with cell-to-cell communication and attachment
Passive Transport
- Movement of molecules across plasma membrane without additional energy from cell.
- Examples of passive processes:
- Diffusion: movement of molecules from high to low concentration
- Facilitated diffusion: molecules carried across the membrane by proteins, which may alter shape in the process
- Osmosis: movement of water across selectively permeable membrane, (high water concentration to low water concentration)
- Important aspects of passive processes:
- Selectively permeable membrane, gradient, concentration difference, diffusion, osmosis.
Active Transport
- Movement of molecules across membrane using energy from cell.
- Examples of active processes:
- Sodium potassium (Na + -K +) pump: pumps out 3 Sodium ions for every 2 potassium ions it brings in, maintaining osmolarity
- Important aspects of active processes:
- Against concentration gradient, protein pumps (sodium-potassium pump), energy expenditure (ATP).
Endocytosis
- Process of taking large molecules into cells.
- Types of endocytosis:
- Phagocytosis (cell eating): intake of large particle like cells into cell
- Pinocytosis (cell drinking): intake of liquids into cell
- Receptor-mediated endocytosis: receptors on the surface of cells bind to specific molecules, such as hormones, to be transported inside the cell
Exocytosis
- Process of discharging molecules from cells.
- Vesicles (sacs) containing molecules move to cell membrane.
- Membrane of vesicles merges with cell membrane, molecules discharged outside the cell
The Cytoskeleton
- Internal framework of protein filaments that determines cell shape and movement • Filaments & fibers • Microtubules • Intermediate filaments • Microfilaments
Cilia & Flagella
- Motile appendages
- Microtubules arranged in 9+2 (for cilia, flagella) pattern, allowing coordinated beating and function
- Important for movement
How Cells Acquire Energy
- Focuses on methods used by cells to acquire energy ATP, enzymes, cellular respiration, and fermentation.
ATP and Cellular Work
- Chemical energy stored in fuel molecules
- Stored in ATP molecules
- ATP powers cellular work-
- Example of ATP's role in cellular work: moving a muscle, transporting solutes across membranes, performing chemical reactions.
Enzymes
- Biochemical catalysts
- Lower activation energy
- Work via the lock-and-key or induced fit model
- Active site for substrate
- Enzyme Specificity
Control of Cellular Processes via Enzymes
- Coordination and regulation are essential for metabolic activity
- Regulation occurs via controlling enzyme behaviour
- Enzymes can be blocked or deactivated by certain molecules
Enzyme Inhibitors
- Competitive inhibition: similar shapes, competes with substrates for active site.
- Non-competitive inhibition:different shapes, bind to another part of the enzyme, changes the shape of the enzyme and impairs its performance
Negative Feedback Inhibition
- Product of a reaction serves as an inhibitor
Cellular Respiration
- Aerobic harvesting of chemical energy stored in organic molecules
- Involves 3 stages: Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain
Glycolysis (Step 1)
- Occurs in the cytosol
- 10 steps, enzyme catalyzed reaction
- Glucose converted into 2 pyruvate molecules
- Produces 2ATP, 2NADH + 2 H+ and 2 molecules of Pyruvic acid
Between Step 1 and Step 2
- Pyruvic acid is groomed by removing a carbon dioxide molecule
- Acetyl CoA is formed by attaching CoA enzyme
- Energy is released in the form of 2 NADH
Krebs Cycle (Step 2)
- Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria
- Series of reactions
- Acetyl CoA enters and yields 2 CO2 molecules
- Produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH + 6 H+, 2 FADH2.
Electron Transport Chain & Chemiosmosis (Step 3)
- Involves a series of redox reactions
- Electrons from NADH and FADH₂ give up energy, which is used to pump protons into the intermembrane space
- Protein pumps and ATP synthase produce ATP when the protons flow down the concentration gradient
Fermentation
- Anaerobic respiration
- When oxygen is lacking
- Produces ATP without using oxygen
- Two types of fermentation:
- Alcoholic fermentation (yeast)
- Lactic acid fermentation (muscle cells)
Photosynthesis
- Light energy to chemical bond energy (sugars and other organic molecules)
- Light reactions converts light to ATP and NADPH
- Calvin Cycle uses ATP and NADPH to build glucose molecules.
- Overall: Light energy + 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂
Chloroplasts: Sites of Photosynthesis
- Light-absorbing organelles for photosynthesis.
- High concentration in the interior cells of leaves
- Chlorophyll plays a vital role in converting light energy into chemical energy.
- Other pigments help absorb other wavelengths of light.
The Nature of Sunlight
- Electromagnetic energy with different wavelengths.
- Chlorophyll absorbs most light in the blue-violet and red parts of the visible light spectrum.
Chloroplast Pigments
- Chlorophyll a absorbs blue-violet and red light
- Chlorophyll b absorbs light in blue and orange regions and transfers to chlorophyll a
- Carotenoids absorb blue-green light and protect against light damage
Photosystems
- Light harvesting complexes in chlorophyll
Light-Dependent Reactions
- Using light energy to produce ATP and NADPH.
- Splitting water to obtain electrons for use in generating high energy electron carriers (NADPH)
- Creating a proton gradient to drive ATP production
- Releases oxygen as a byproduct (O2)
The Calvin Cycle
- Utilizing the products of light reactions
- Converting CO₂ into organic molecules
- The cycle converts raw materials into stable sugar molecules.
Summary of Photosynthesis
- Light-dependent reactions (in thylakoid membranes): trapping light energy, splitting water (O₂released), producing ATP and NADPH.
- Light-independent reactions (in stroma): using ATP and NADPH to build sugars from CO₂ (carbon fixation), also known as Calvin Cycle.
The Nucleus: Genetic Control of the Cell
- Nucleus: central control center, containing DNA, organizing cells- important for maintaining cell structure and function (encloses all DNA and genetic information)
- Nuclear envelope: double membrane separating nucleus and cytoplasm
- Chromatin: DNA associated with proteins for organization and control
- Nucleolus: site for ribosome production/ manufacture components
- DNA, transcription and regulation/ gene expression
Ribosomes: Protein Synthesis
- Responsible for protein synthesis
- Components made in nucleolus
- Found freely in cytoplasm, or attached to ER
- Coordinate the functions of mRNA and tRNA
- Protein construction process
How DNA Directs Protein Production
- Transfers genetic information in 2 steps: transcription and translation
- Transcription: converting DNA to mRNA
- Translation: converting mRNA to amino acid sequences
- Proteins produced determine organism characteristics.
The Endomembrane system
The endomembrane system is a complex series of interconnected membranes that work in transporting and modifying molecules in a cell.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- Rough ER (has ribosomes): protein synthesis.
- Smooth ER (no ribosomes): lipid synthesis.
- Modifies and transports substances in a cell.
The Golgi Apparatus
- Modifies, sorts, and packages materials (like proteins) for transport to various destinations in/out of the cell.
Lysosomes, Vacuoles
- Lysosomes : membrane enclosed sacs of digestive enzymes within animal cells to degrade waste materials, toxins, bacteria.
- Vacuoles: large sacs; plant cells central vacuoles (store nutrients, absorb water, contain pigments for attraction and toxins for protection)
- Food vacuoles and contractile vacuoles (in single-celled organisms e.g., protists): digestion & water regulation.
Cell Cycle and Mitosis
- The regular process of cell division
- The mechanism and timing are controlled
- Cell types vary throughout the cycle times.
Mitosis
- Phase of cell cycle where genetic material is divided
- Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase phases are present in cell division.
- Duplicated chromosomes (sister chromatids) are separated and moved to opposite poles.
- New nuclei form around each set of chromosomes.
Cytokinesis
- Cytoplasm divides
- Animal cells: cleavage furrow forms and pinches in two
- Plant cells: a cell plate forms between nuclei to form new membranes and cell walls
Control of Cell Division
- Control mechanisms
- Checkpoints for assessing cell health and environment.
- Specific proteins (e.g., proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes) control cell division rate.
Variations in Mendel's laws
- Incomplete dominance
- Codominance
- Multiple alleles
- Polygenic inheritance
The origins of genetic variation
- Independent Assortment
- Crossing Over
- Gene mutations
Accidents during meiosis
- Nondisjunction
- Results in abnormal chromosome numbers
Human Karyotype
- Visualization of chromosomes in a typical human somatic cell
- 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes
- Shows how chromosome structures are used to identify abnormalities/ differences.
Gametes & Sexual Reproduction
- Organisms' life cycles alternate between haploid and diploid stages for proper genetic information transfer
- Meiosis results in haploid gametes which unite during fertilization to form a diploid zygote
Homologous Chromosomes
- Pairs of chromosomes similar in size, structure, gene arrangements
- They contain genes that code similar traits, but may have varying alleles.
Solving Problems in Genetics
- Single-factor vs. double-factor crosses
- Monohybrid vs. dihybrid crosses
- Using Punnett squares for genotype or phenotype prediction.
- Testcross to determine genotypes.
Human Traits
- Dominant and recessive traits controlled by one gene (simple inheritance)
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Description
Test your knowledge on homeostasis, the structure and function of proteins, and the characteristics of nucleic acids. This quiz covers key concepts such as osmoregulation, energy transformation, and the chemical bonds involved in protein synthesis. Perfect for students of biology seeking to assess their understanding of these essential topics.
