Protein Structure, Amino Acids, and Nucleic Acids

Tertiary Structure of Proteins

• Coordination bonds are not involved in the creation of the tertiary structure of proteins; ionic, hydrogen, hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bonds are.

Casein

• Casein is a phosphoprotein.

Amino Acids

• Beta-alanine is not part of the structure of protein molecules.
• Proline is an imino acid.
• Methionine is an amino acid containing sulfur.

Hemoglobin

• The formula for the quaternary structure of a hemoglobin molecule is alfa2beta2.

Nucleoproteins

• Histones are basic simple proteins of human nucleoproteins.

Nucleic Acids Function

• Nucleic acids preserve and transfer genetic information and synthesize proteins.

Catalytical Function

• Enzymes carry out an organism's catalytical functions.

Hemoglobin Mutation

• Valine occurs in hemoglobin instead of glutamic acid, resulting in sickle-cell anemia during mutation of the hemoglobin gene.

Vitellin

• Vitellin contains lipids.

Nucleic Acids

• Nucleotides are monomers of nucleic acids.

Polypeptide Chain Spatial Orientation

• The spatial orientation of a polypeptide chain containing alpha-helices, beta-structures, and areas without a periodic structure is called tertiary structure.

Oligomeric Proteins

• Individual polypeptide chains of oligomeric proteins are called protomers.

Protein Structure

• The number and order of the protomers in a protein compound is called the quaternary structure.

Denaturing Agents

• Alcohol is a denaturing agent utilized to sterilize medical instruments in autoclaves.

Fibrillar Proteins

• Fibrillar proteins have asymmetric (uneven) amino acid composition, as opposed to globular proteins.

Hydration of Proteins

• The hydration of proteins is forming an aqueous shell due to uncharged polar and ionogenic groups on the protein's surface.

Protein Denaturation

• Protein denaturation involves violating the native protein conformation.

Immunoglobulins

• Immunoglobulins are glycoproteins by chemical nature.

Histones

• Histones stabilize the spatial structure of DNA and regulate gene expression.

Complex Protein

• The polypeptide portion of a complex protein is called an apoprotein and the non-amino acid portion is called a prosthetic group.

Structural Function Proteins

• Collagen, scleroproteins, and keratin mainly perform structural functions.

Hormonal Function Proteins

• Insulin performs a hormonal function.

Transport Function Proteins

• Hemoglobin and albumin perform a transport function.

Protective Function Proteins

• Interferon performs a protective function.

Contractile Function Proteins

• Myosin performs a contractile function.

Collagen Types

• Collagen type 1 is contained in greatest quantity in the organism, meeting in the skin, tendons, bones, and cornea.
• Collagen type 4 exists in the cardiovascular system.

Ester Bonds

• Serine, threonine, and tyrosine participate in forming ester bonds between amino acids and phosphoric acid.

Sickle Cell Hemoglobin

• α2$2 represents sickle cell hemoglobin.

Hemoglobin Functions

• Hemoglobin in vertebrate erythrocytes transports O2 from lungs to peripheral tissues and CO2 and protons from peripheral tissues to lungs.

Hemoglobin

• Hemoglobin does not act as a source of bile.

Myoglobin

• Myoglobin consists of 153 amino acids.

Transferrin

• Transferrin is B1-globulin with a molecular mass of approximately 76 kDa.

Iron Storage

• Hemochromatosis occurs under conditions of excess iron with Ferritin.

Copper in Plasma

• Ceruloplasmin has a blue color due to its high copper content and carries 90% of the copper present in plasma.

Glycoproteins

• Glycoproteins contain more than 10% carbohydrates.

True GP Representatives

• HbF, Mg, HbA, and HbB are not true GP representatives.

Saliva Proteins

• Musine is a protein of slime contained in saliva.

Proteoglycans

• Glycosaminoglycans, or mucopolysaccharides, are carbohydrates of proteoglycans.

Glucosaminoglycans

• Musine is not a type of glucosaminoglycan.

Nucleoproteins Functions

• Nucleoproteins carry out a structural function in an organism.

Nucleoproteins Composition

• Nucleoproteins consist of simple proteins and nucleic acids.

Mononucleotides

• Mononucleotides are structural units of polynucleotides.

Nucleotides

• Nucleotides are not components of carbohydrates.

Acids

• Adenylic acid enters RNA.

Thymidine Monophosphate

• Thymidine monophosphate is a component of DNA.

Nucleotides of DNA

• Nucleotides of DNA are not part of phosphoproteins.

Nucleoside Triphosphate Importance

• A nucleoside triphosphate is a component of nucleotides.

Complementarity

• Complementarity is characteristically for A and T.

Complementarity Principle

• The principle of complementarity is characteristic of DNA.

DNA Molecules

• Changeable quantity is characteristic of DNA molecules.

DNA Primary Structure

• The primary structure of DNA is determined by a chain of maternal DNA.
• Phosphodiester bond stabilizes the primary structure of DNA.
• The primary structure of DNA is represented by a one-spiral polynucleotide chain.

DNA Secondary Structure

• The secondary structure of DNA is represented by a two-spiral polynucleotide chain, observing Chargaff's rules.
• Hydrogen, forces Van der Waals, and ionic bonds stabilize the secondary structure of DNA.

DNA Tertiary Structure

• The tertiary structure of DNA is a nucleosoma.

DNA Quaternary Structure

• The quaternary structure of DNA is a chromosome.

RNA vs. DNA

• RNA differs from DNA because it is not submitted to rules Chargaff.

Primary Structure of RNA

• The primary structure of RNA is a one-spiral polynucleotide chain.

mRNA

• The secondary structure of mRNA is represented by free loops.

tRNA

• tRNA recognizes amino acids and carries them to a ribosome.

tRNA Specificity

• The structure of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase provides the specificity of tRNA to a particular amino acid.

tRNA Coding

• The structure of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase provides specificity of t-RNA to a determined codon.

Antycodone

• Antycodone is located on t-RNA

DNA

• Deoxyribose is a monosaccharide component of nucleotides in DNA.

Maltose

• Maltose has an α(1→4) glycosidic bond.

Carbohydrates

• Glycogen is a storage form of carbohydrates in animals.
• Lactose is known as milk sugar.
• Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

Plant Cell Walls

• Cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls.

Heteropolysaccharide

• Hyaluronic acid is a heteropolysaccharide.

Bacterial Cell Walls

• N-acetylglucosamine is involved in the structure of bacterial cell walls.

Animal Starch

• Glycogen is known as animal starch.

Dietary Fiber

• Reducing glucose and cholesterol absorption is the main function of dietary fiber in human nutrition.

Kidney Function

• Inulin is used to assess kidney function.

Aldohexose

• Glucose is an aldohexose.

Sucrose

• Sucrose contains an α(1-2) β glycosidic bond.

Sugar Alcohol

• Sorbitol is a sugar alcohol.

Humans Digestion

• Cellulose cannot be digested in humans.

Sweetest Sugar

• Fructose is the sweetest naturally occurring sugar.

Carbohydrate Molecular Breakdown

• Starch hydrolyzes to yield only glucose molecules.

Marathon Energy

• Glycogen will be primarily utilized as an energy source during a marathon.

Disrupting Lactase

• Disrupting the enzyme lactase results in lactose intolerance.

Glycosaminoglycans

• The structural integrity of connective tissue demonstrates the importance of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in human physiology.

Energy Storage

• Lipids are the primary storage form of energy in the body.

Cell Membranes

• Phospholipids are the main component of cell membranes.

Lipids

• Lipids function as Enzymes for catalysis.
• Saturated fatty acids contain no double bonds.
• Saturated fatty acids increase LDL cholesterol levels.

Fatty acids

• Trans fatty acids have hydrogen atoms opposite the sides of the double bond.
• Omega-3 fatty acids act as an anti-inflammatory agent.

Cholesterol Transport

• LDL is primarily responsible for transporting cholesterol from the liver to other tissues.

Derivatives

• Eicosanoids are a derivative of polyenoic fatty acids.

Steroid Hormones

• Cholesterol is the precursor for steroid hormones.

Good Cholesterol

• HDL is known as "good cholesterol".

Essential Fatty Acid

• Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid and must be obtained from the diet.

Lipids Classes

• Glycolipids include cerebrosides and gangliosides classes of lipids.

Trans Fatty Acids

• Trans-fatty acids increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases.

Cell Signaling

• Phospholipids play a role in cell signaling.

Dietary Triglycerides

• Chylomicrons are synthesized in the intestine and transport dietary triglycerides.

Bile Acids

• Cholesterol is a major component of bile acids.

Lower Cholesterol

• Saturated fats should be minimized to decrease LDL cholesterol levels in patients with atherosclerosis.

Hydrogenation

• Trans-unsaturated fatty acids are most likely increased when hydrogenating vegetable oil.

Lipid Absorption

• Bile acid deficiency impairs cholesterol absorption in newborns.

Omega-3 Supplements

• Omega-3 fatty acids reduce serum triglyceride levels by decreasing VLDL synthesis.

Lipid Study Focus

• Arachidonic acid is the lipid essential for the synthesis of eicosanoids.

Trans Fats

• Elevated C-reactive protein levels are likely to occur when increasing trans fats.

Lipid Molecules

• A lipid molecule composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group is most likely involved in cell membrane structure.