Biology Chapter on Evolutionary Theories
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Questions and Answers

Which of these is NOT a characteristic of a scientific theory?

  • It is constantly evolving
  • It is based on facts
  • It is supported by a large body of evidence
  • It is a proven fact (correct)

    • What is the main difference between a neutral mutation and a beneficial mutation?

  • A neutral mutation has no effect on the organism's survival, while a beneficial mutation increases its survival. (correct)
  • A neutral mutation can be passed onto offspring, while a beneficial mutation cannot.
  • A neutral mutation is always harmful, while a beneficial mutation is always helpful.
  • A neutral mutation is caused by a change in the DNA sequence, while a beneficial mutation is not.

    • What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis?

  • Mitosis creates four daughter cells, while meiosis creates two.
  • Mitosis is responsible for genetic variation, while meiosis is not.
  • Mitosis is for growth and repair, while meiosis involves cell division during sexual reproduction. (correct)
  • Mitosis is for sexual reproduction, while meiosis is for growth and repair.

    • What is a karyotype?

    <p>A picture of chromosomes arranged in a specific order.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a nondisjunction disorder?

    <p>Sickle Cell Anemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between Lamarck's theory of evolution and Darwin's theory of natural selection?

    <p>Lamarck believed in the inheritance of acquired traits, while Darwin believed in natural selection as the driving force.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why did Buffon find vestigial organs puzzling?

    <p>He couldn't understand how they could be used for survival.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the flaw in Lamarck's first principle, Use and Disuse?

    <p>It's based on the idea that acquired traits can be inherited.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the correct name for the process where humans selectively breed plants or animals for desirable traits?

    <p>Artificial selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT an example of Artificial Selection?

    <p>The development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cuvier's theory of catastrophism suggests that:

    <p>Species are created and destroyed by catastrophic events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these scientists is NOT associated with the early development of evolutionary theory?

    <p>Gregor Mendel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between Lamarck's theory and Darwin's theory?

    <p>Lamarck believed in the use and disuse of organs, while Darwin focused on natural selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main idea behind the theory of uniformitarianism?

    <p>Earth's features were formed by gradual processes over long periods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is a correct example of a neutral mutation?

    <p>A mutation that changes the color of an insect's eye without affecting its survival.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors is NOT a significant influence on the intensity of UV radiation reaching Earth's surface?

    <p>Magnetic field strength</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of melanin in human skin?

    <p>To absorb UV radiation and protect cells from damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does skin reflectance relate to skin color?

    <p>Darker skin reflects less visible light, resulting in lower reflectance values.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the inner arm used to measure skin reflectance?

    <p>It is less exposed to sunlight, providing a baseline for natural skin pigmentation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between latitude and skin reflectance?

    <p>Skin reflectance increases with increasing latitude.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the hypothesis, why did darker skin pigmentation evolve in populations near the equator?

    <p>To protect against harmful UV-induced folate degradation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is negative selection in the context of skin color evolution?

    <p>Selection against traits that decrease melanin production.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is skin cancer not considered a primary selective pressure for skin color evolution?

    <p>Skin cancer typically develops after reproductive age, having little impact on gene transmission.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the connection between folate levels and UV exposure?

    <p>It explains why darker skin is advantageous in high UV regions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a potential consequence of folate deficiency?

    <p>Heart disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the UV Index?

    <p>A standardized scale that forecasts the intensity of UV radiation at a given time and location.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does UV radiation intensity decrease as you move away from the equator towards the poles?

    <p>The sun's rays are more oblique and spread out over a larger surface area at higher latitudes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the discovery of the relationship between folate levels and UV exposure refine the hypothesis for skin color evolution?

    <p>It provided a more direct link between UV exposure and reproductive success.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between the initial hypothesis for skin color evolution and the revised hypothesis based on folate levels?

    <p>The initial hypothesis focused on vitamin D synthesis, while the revised hypothesis focused on folate degradation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it inaccurate to say that skin cancer was the key driver of skin color evolution?

    <p>Skin cancer typically develops after reproductive age, having little impact on gene transmission.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary force driving adaptive evolution?

    <p>Natural selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the bottleneck effect and the founder effect?

    <p>The bottleneck effect occurs when a population is reduced in size, while the founder effect occurs when a small group isolates itself from a larger population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following scenarios is an example of the bottleneck effect?

    <p>A large forest fire reduces the size of a population of deer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a condition that causes evolution to occur?

    <p>Large population size</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Hardy-Weinberg principle?

    <p>A model that describes the conditions under which allele and genotype frequencies remain constant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a prezygotic isolating mechanism?

    <p>Behavioral isolation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between microevolution and speciation?

    <p>Microevolution is the change in allele frequencies within a population, while speciation is the formation of a new species.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is low genetic diversity a concern for populations?

    <p>It makes populations more susceptible to diseases and environmental change.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a condition for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

    <p>Mutations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a prezygotic mechanism of reproductive isolation?

    <p>Hybrid sterility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is gene flow?

    <p>The movement of genes between populations due to migration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of allopatric speciation?

    <p>A population of fish in a lake is separated by a new land barrier, leading to two distinct species.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a key characteristic of a species?

    <p>They can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a consequence of the founder effect?

    <p>Increased rate of evolution.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between prezygotic and postzygotic mechanisms of reproductive isolation?

    <p>Prezygotic mechanisms occur before fertilization, while postzygotic mechanisms occur after fertilization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of how natural selection can drive adaptation?

    <p>A population of insects evolves resistance to a pesticide.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of prokaryotes?

    <p>They have a nucleus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of pili/fimbriae in bacteria?

    <p>Attachment to surfaces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which bacteria control their pathogenicity?

    <p>Quorum sensing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bacteria has a thicker peptidoglycan layer in its cell wall?

    <p>Gram-positive bacteria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What serious complication can occur due to the overuse of antibiotics?

    <p>Development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name given to bacteria that can survive in the presence of oxygen but can also thrive without it?

    <p>Facultative aerobes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bacteria is responsible for the production of methane?

    <p>Methanogens.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the squid play in its symbiotic relationship with bioluminescent bacteria?

    <p>It provides a habitat and nutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes is NOT a form of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria?

    <p>Binary fission.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does quorum sensing in bacteria allow them to do?

    <p>Detect population density</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant outcome of the discovery of penicillin?

    <p>Reduced death rates from bacterial infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name given to the process by which bacteria acquire nutrients from carbon-containing organic materials?

    <p>Heterotrophy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a common shape found in bacteria?

    <p>Amoeba.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect is crucial for the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria?

    <p>Repeated antibiotic use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the bacterial capsule?

    <p>Reducing water loss and resisting high temperatures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Interspecies communication in bacteria primarily involves which type of signaling molecules?

    <p>AI-2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a positive contribution of bacteria to the environment and human health?

    <p>Infectious diseases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which symptom is associated with cholera caused by Vibrio cholerae?

    <p>Watery diarrhea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What adaptation allows bacteria to communicate during quorum sensing?

    <p>Release and detection of signaling molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What catastrophic effect did infections have before the invention of antibiotics?

    <p>People died from simple scrapes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is intraspecies communication in bacteria characterized by?

    <p>Coordination of behaviors within the same species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which traditional antibiotics contribute to bacterial death?

    <p>Inhibiting cell wall formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of meiosis in sexual reproduction?

    <p>To produce haploid gametes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do new antibiotic approaches aim to combat bacterial infections differently from traditional methods?

    <p>By targeting bacterial communication systems instead of killing the bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What illness can be caused by Clostridium tetani?

    <p>Tetanus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do bacteria play in understanding human biology?

    <p>They are ancient organisms that reveal insights into complex processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the specific location of a gene on a chromosome?

    <p>Locus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What bacteria is responsible for Lyme disease?

    <p>Borrelia burgdorferi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What outcome did Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin have on bacterial diseases?

    <p>Greater treatment options</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What results from crossing over during Prophase I of meiosis?

    <p>Increased genetic variation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the characteristics of viruses?

    <p>They require a host cell for reproduction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes asexual reproduction from sexual reproduction?

    <p>Produces genetically identical offspring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes an epidemic from a pandemic?

    <p>An epidemic affects a specific region, while a pandemic spreads globally.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structures are responsible for carrying genetic information?

    <p>Chromosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do bacteriophages infect bacteria?

    <p>By injecting their RNA into bacterial cells while remaining outside.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during the lytic cycle of a virus?

    <p>The host cell produces viral proteins and assembles new viruses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many chromosomes do human somatic cells typically contain?

    <p>46</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of vaccines?

    <p>To trigger an immune response without causing the disease.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of genes within DNA?

    <p>To encode information for protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What challenge do researchers face in developing vaccines for rapidly mutating viruses?

    <p>The rapid mutations decrease the effectiveness of existing vaccines.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the condition where an organism has too many or too few chromosomes?

    <p>Aneuploidy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the primary components that corals are made of?

    <p>Hard exoskeletons made of calcium carbonate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is lysogeny in the context of viral infections?

    <p>The integration of viral DNA into the host's chromosome.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phase of meiosis results in the formation of haploid daughter cells?

    <p>Telophase I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one significant role of viruses in ecosystems?

    <p>They play a role in controlling host populations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process called when corals expel their symbiotic zooxanthellae due to stress from warming waters?

    <p>Coral bleaching</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nitrogenous base pairs with Adenine in DNA?

    <p>Thymine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does targeting quorum sensing potentially reduce antibiotic resistance?

    <p>By decreasing the selective pressure for bacteria to mutate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do zooxanthellae benefit corals in their mutualistic relationship?

    <p>By offering energy through photosynthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a main advantage of sexual reproduction?

    <p>Greater genetic variation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is significant about the mechanism of action for tetracycline antibiotics?

    <p>They interfere with the bacterial ribosomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the state of genetic material in all cells of an individual organism?

    <p>It is identical across all cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the impact of rising water temperatures on coral reefs?

    <p>Corals may struggle to survive due to energy loss.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primary event occurs during Anaphase II of meiosis?

    <p>Sister chromatids separate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of environments do most protists thrive in?

    <p>Aquatic environments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the arrangement of chromosomes during Metaphase I of meiosis?

    <p>Random assortment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organism is more closely related to elephants than to brown algae?

    <p>Amoebas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the classification of Protista considered outdated?

    <p>It does not account for genetic and evolutionary relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the alternation of generations in multicellular protists?

    <p>Alternation between haploid and diploid stages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do protists reproduce asexually?

    <p>Through binary fission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can higher water temperatures lead to in coral populations?

    <p>Higher mortality rates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant consequence of coral bleaching?

    <p>Decreased energy availability for corals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the classification of Protista evolving with current scientific advancements?

    <p>By using genetic relationships to redefine classifications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do gametes play in the sexual reproduction of protists?

    <p>They fuse to form a zygote.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of fungi as decomposers in the ecosystem?

    <p>They recycle nutrients by breaking down dead organic material.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes HIV's impact on the immune system?

    <p>HIV attacks white blood cells and prevents the body from fighting infections effectively.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism driving the process of evolution, according to Darwin?

    <p>Natural selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following concepts explains that all species are derived from ancestral species?

    <p>Descent with Modification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does herd immunity function to protect a population from infectious diseases?

    <p>It helps prevent the spread of disease by ensuring a substantial portion of the population is immune.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of selection occurs when extremes of a trait are favored over intermediate variations?

    <p>Disruptive Selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about prions is true?

    <p>Prions are abnormally shaped proteins that modify normal neural proteins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant finding in the 1998 Lancet article by Andrew Wakefield?

    <p>It involved a selective recruitment of subjects from an anti-vaccine group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of directional selection in the environment?

    <p>Birds with longer beaks surviving better in deep flowers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic distinguishes fungal cells from plant cells?

    <p>Fungal cell walls are made of chitin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which type of selection are individuals with average traits favored above extremes?

    <p>Stabilizing Selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What therapeutic approach does gene therapy utilize?

    <p>Using viruses to deliver genes or drugs to target cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sexual selection primarily involves which of the following?

    <p>Enhanced mating success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does natural selection contribute to the survival of a species?

    <p>By favoring traits that improve reproductive success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do fungi negatively impact crops?

    <p>By causing plant diseases and producing harmful toxins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of yeast compared to other fungi?

    <p>Yeast is a single-celled and reproduces by budding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can result from trait trade-offs in natural selection?

    <p>Harmful costs associated with advantageous traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept describes the inheritance of traits in a population over time?

    <p>VISTA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mutualistic relationship between mycorrhizal fungi and plants?

    <p>Fungi aid in nutrient absorption for plants and receive carbohydrates in return.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly explains how penicillin functions?

    <p>It inhibits the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following environmental factors might serve as a selective pressure?

    <p>Availability of resources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary reason for the difficulty in developing an HIV vaccine?

    <p>The immune system cannot recognize infected cells quickly enough.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way do selective pressures impact evolutionary traits?

    <p>They determine which traits are inherited</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which is true regarding lichens in relation to fungi and algae/cyanobacteria?

    <p>Lichens provide structure while the algae engage in photosynthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of sexual selection in play?

    <p>Larger antlers in male deer for battle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the role of variation in natural selection?

    <p>Variation allows for potential adaptations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin?

    <p>It was the first antibiotic discovered by chance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit that fungi gain from their symbiotic relationship with plants?

    <p>Carbohydrates produced during photosynthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic typically associated with protists?

    <p>They are all heterotrophic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is an example of a parasitic fungus?

    <p>Cordyceps</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of protists in an ecosystem?

    <p>They serve as primary producers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a way that protists are used as a food source?

    <p>Used as a primary source of carbohydrates in most diets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the estimated percentage of Earth's oxygen that is produced by protists?

    <p>50%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential consequence of climate change on protists in aquatic ecosystems?

    <p>Harmful algal blooms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do some dinoflagellates benefit coral in a symbiotic relationship?

    <p>They provide nutrients through photosynthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a protist used as a dietary supplement?

    <p>Spirulina</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is TRUE about the kingdom Protista?

    <p>It's considered a catch-all kingdom for eukaryotes that don't fit in other groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT directly consumed as food, but is derived from protists and used in the food industry?

    <p>Agar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason for the diverse range of characteristics found in protists?

    <p>They have a long evolutionary history</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the relationship between fungi and plant roots in a mycorrhizal relationship?

    <p>A symbiotic relationship where both organisms mutually benefit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why protists are considered the simplest eukaryotic organisms?

    <p>They are mostly unicellular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the stalk-like structure produced by Cordyceps after its host dies?

    <p>To release spores to infect new insects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a direct effect of climate change on protists in aquatic ecosystems?

    <p>Increased predation by fish</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason why scientists consider the Kingdom Protista a ‘catch all’ kingdom?

    <p>There is a lack of consensus about which groups belong in the kingdom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately describes the evolutionary advantage of lighter skin in low-UV regions?

    <p>Lighter skin allows for more efficient vitamin D production, which is essential for calcium absorption.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following groups is at the highest risk for vitamin D deficiency in regions with low UV radiation?

    <p>Dark-skinned individuals living in low-UV regions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary evolutionary advantage of darker skin near the equator?

    <p>Protection against folate degradation from high UV exposure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a mechanism of evolution as described in the provided text?

    <p>Artificial Selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the high prevalence of unique species on remote islands, as explained by the principles of biogeography?

    <p>Geographic isolation, preventing gene flow and leading to distinct evolutionary paths.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The presence of pelvic bones in whales, despite their lack of hind limbs, is an example of which evolutionary evidence?

    <p>Vestigial Features</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes the relationship between folate degradation and vitamin D synthesis in relation to skin color?

    <p>Folate degradation is more significant in darker skin, while lighter skin facilitates vitamin D synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are fossils considered strong evidence for evolution?

    <p>They provide a visual representation of how organisms have changed over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered the strongest evidence for common ancestry among species?

    <p>DNA comparisons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does genetic drift influence the evolution of a population?

    <p>It causes random changes in allele frequencies, especially in smaller populations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term "analogous features" refer to, as explained within the context of evolution?

    <p>Structures with similar functions but different evolutionary origins.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor driving the evolution of skin color across different populations?

    <p>The intensity of ultraviolet radiation and its impact on health.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on the content provided, what is the main factor contributing to the increase in vitamin D deficiency risk during winter, especially at higher latitudes?

    <p>Decreased sunlight exposure due to shorter days and cloud cover.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the use of tanning booths affect vitamin D production and folate degradation?

    <p>Increases folate degradation while increasing vitamin D production.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most significant consequence of recent migrations in relation to skin color and health?

    <p>Increased risk of vitamin D deficiency in darker-skinned individuals living in low-UV regions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the concept of "natural selection" as presented in the text?

    <p>The process by which organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a postzygotic reproductive isolating mechanism?

    <p>Habitat Isolation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which allopatric speciation occurs?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which scenario is an example of geographic splitting due to continental drift?

    <p>The separation of species on either side of the Isthmus of Panama</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between gradual sympatric speciation and sudden sympatric speciation?

    <p>Gradual speciation involves changes in allele frequencies over many generations, while sudden speciation occurs due to a single genetic mutation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following events is NOT an example of adaptive radiation?

    <p>The evolution of different species of squirrels in Ontario</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the process of divergent evolution?

    <p>Two species evolve different traits due to different environmental pressures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of selection is responsible for the diversification of Darwin's finches into different species?

    <p>Disruptive Selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered a human influence on speciation?

    <p>Habitat fragmentation due to urban development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the process of hybrid inviability?

    <p>A hybrid offspring is unable to survive to reproduce</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a potential outcome of polyploidy?

    <p>Increased genetic diversity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary way in which wildlife corridors can influence speciation?

    <p>They can increase gene flow between isolated populations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a species that is the result of hybrid infertility?

    <p>A mule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of a niche in adaptive radiation?

    <p>It is the role a species plays in its ecosystem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a common mechanism of geographic splitting?

    <p>Climate change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these scenarios best illustrates the concept of zygotic mortality?

    <p>A male lion mates with a female tiger, resulting in a hybrid offspring that is unable to survive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between speciation and reproductive isolation?

    <p>Reproductive isolation is a necessary condition for speciation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    UNIT 1: BIODIVERSITY

    Intro to Biodiversity

    • Biodiversity encompasses the variety of life on Earth.

    Taxonomy

    • Taxonomy is the science of classifying organisms.

    Phylogeny

    • Phylogeny describes the evolutionary relationships among organisms.

    Prokaryotes

    • Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms.
    • They lack membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus.
    • Domains Eubacteria (bacteria) and Archaea (archaebacteria) are prokaryotes.
    • They are the smallest and most numerous organisms on Earth.
    • Total bacterial mass exceeds that of all animals.
    • 34 trillion bacteria are found on or within the human body, vs 30 trillion human cells.

    Domain Eubacteria

    • Prokaryotes have existed for over 3.5 billion years.
    • Eubacteria are the bacteria we most commonly encounter.

    Bacterial Structure

    • Pili/Fimbriae: Hair-like structures aiding attachment to surfaces.
    • Cell Wall: Composed of peptidoglycan (amino acids and sugars).
      • Gram-positive: Purple/violet stain, high peptidoglycan content.
      • Gram-negative: Pink stain, lower peptidoglycan, with outer membrane, more antibiotic resistant.
    • Plasma Membrane: The cell's outer boundary.
    • Flagella: Used for movement.
    • Chromosome: Circular DNA in the nucleoid region.
    • Plasmid: Small loops of DNA in addition to the chromosome.
    • Capsule (optional): Sticky layer surrounding some bacteria, reducing water loss, resisting heat, and blocking antibiotics and viruses.

    Bacterial Shapes and Arrangements

    • Shapes: Coccus (round), Bacillus (rod-shaped), Spirillum (spiral).
    • Arrangements: Diplo (pairs), Staphylo (clumps), Strepto (chains).

    Bacterial Metabolism

    • Autotrophs: Obtain carbon from inorganic sources.
      • Photoautotrophs: Use sunlight for energy (photosynthesis).
      • Chemoautotrophs: Use chemical compounds for energy.
    • Heterotrophs: Obtain carbon from organic sources (living or dead organisms).
    • Aerobic Respiration: Requires oxygen.
    • Anaerobic Fermentation: Does not require oxygen.
    • Bacteria can be obligate aerobes (require oxygen), facultative aerobes (can survive with or without oxygen), or obligate anaerobes (cannot survive with oxygen).

    Bacterial Reproduction

    • Reproduce asexually by binary fission (cell divides into two identical daughter cells).
    • Conjugation: Transfer of genetic material (plasmids) between bacteria via a pilus.
    • Transformation: Uptake of loose DNA fragments from the environment.

    Domain Archaea

    • Generally distinct from bacteria and eukaryotes.

    Archaea Traits

    • Many live in extreme environments.
      • Methanogens: Low oxygen environments, produce methane.
      • Halophiles: High-salt environments.
      • Extreme thermophiles: Extremely high temperatures (70-90°C).
      • Psychrophiles: Extremely cold temperatures (-10 to -20°C).

    Bacterial Diseases

    • Some bacteria produce toxins (e.g., botulinum toxin).
    • Others release toxins when decaying.
    • Many cause serious human diseases (e.g., Cholera, Diphtheria, Lyme Disease, Pertussis, Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, Scarlet Fever, Tetanus).

    Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance

    • Antibiotics can effectively treat bacterial infections.
    • Overuse of antibiotics leads to antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
    • Resistant strains arise from mutations occurring before exposure to antibiotics.
    • Resistant bacteria multiply quickly, increasing the frequency of resistant strains, affecting effectiveness of antibiotics.

    How Bacteria Talk (Quorum Sensing)

    • Bacteria communicate through quorum sensing.
    • They release signaling molecules (autoinducers) whose concentration increases with population density, triggering a response in the bacteria.

    Symbiotic Relationships with Bacteria

    • Bacteria and squid: Bioluminescence in squid light organs for camouflage. Bacteria benefit from nutrients and environment, and squid benefit from camouflage.
    • Bacteria and humans: Many beneficial relationships, with some bacteria providing vitamins.

    Viruses

    • Viruses are non-living infectious agents.
    • Consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat.
    • Some viruses have an envelope.
    • Require a host cell to replicate.
    • Viruses cause various diseases (mild and serious).

    Infectious Cycles

    • Viruses invade, replicate, then release from the host cell.
    • Lysogeny: Viral DNA integrates into host DNA; replicates with host DNA.
    • Lytic cycle: Viral DNA separates, replicates, and assembles new viruses inside the host, leading to host cell lysis.

    Importance of Viruses

    • Responsible for many diseases.
    • Some contribute to cancer.
    • Play a significant role in ecosystems controlling populations.

    Viral Classification

    • Classified by shape, size, and genetic material.
    • Usually infect specific cell types in hosts.

    Bacteriophages

    • Viruses that infect bacteria.
    • Injects viral DNA into the bacterial cell.

    Vaccines

    • Vaccines use weakened versions or parts of viruses to build immunity for infection.
    • Preventing many diseases, improving population health.

    Challenges in Developing Vaccines

    • Viruses evolve rapidly (Ex. Influenza).
    • Some viruses evade the immune system (Ex. HIV).

    Fungi

    • Fungi are heterotrophic eukaryotes, using external digestion.
    • Important decomposers.
    • Symbiotic relationships (i.e. lichen, mycorrhizae)
    • Some are parasitic and cause diseases (i.e. Cordyceps).

    Protists

    • Protists are eukaryotes, and are a catch all for organisms that don't fit into plant, animal or fungal kingdoms.
    • Most are unicellular, but some are multicellular.
    • Can be autotrophic, heterotrophic or mixotrophic.
    • Live in aquatic and moist terrestrial environments.
    • Important primary producers in many ecosystems, decomposers, and are involved in symbiotic relationships (i.e. coral and algae).

    Genetics

    Heredity

    • Heredity is the transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
    • Genetic material is stored in DNA.
    • All organisms contain DNA organized into genes.

    Genes and DNA

    • Genes are sequences of DNA that encode proteins.
    • DNA is a double helix with nucleotides (adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine) forming base pairs (A-T, C-G).
    • DNA sequence determines protein function.

    Meiosis

    • Meiosis produces haploid gametes (sex cells), reducing the chromosome number by half.
    • Crossing over and random assortment increase genetic variation.
    • Mistakes in meiosis can produce aneuploidy (incorrect chromosome number).
    • Meiosis differs from mitosis used for growth and repair in multicellular organism

    Karyotyping

    • Karyotyping is displaying chromosomes for counting and comparison.
    • Used for genetic screening.
    • Sex determination is based on sex chromosomes (X and Y).

    Evolution

    • Evolution is the change in gene frequencies within a population over generations.
    • Mechanisms: Natural Selection, Genetic Drift, Mutation, Gene Flow.

    Speciation

    • Speciation is the formation of new species.
    • Isolating mechanisms (reproductive) prevent interbreeding between populations:
      • Prezygotic: Prevent zygote formation (e.g., behavioral isolation, temporal isolation)
      • Postzygotic: Prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into a fertile individual (e.g., hybrid inviability).

    Natural Selection

    • Traits improving survival and reproduction (fitness) are favored by natural selection.
    • Different types of selection (directional, stabilizing, disruptive, sexual).

    Skin Color Evolution

    • Skin color variation is the result of natural selection.
    • UV radiation intensity and folate protection are key drivers.
    • Lighter skin in lower UV regions facilitates vitamin D synthesis.
    • Skin color evolution is an adaptation to environmental factors.

    Evidence for Evolution

    • Fossil record, biogeography, homologous features, embryonic development, analogous features, vestigial features, competition within populations, and DNA similarity.

    Mechanisms of Evolution

    • Natural selection (the primary driver of adaptive evolution).
    • Genetic drift (random changes in allele frequencies, more impactful in small populations).
    • Gene flow (the movement of genes between populations due to migration).

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    Test your knowledge on the major concepts of evolutionary biology with this quiz. Explore the differences between Lamarck's and Darwin's theories, the role of mutations, and key scientific principles. Perfect for students studying biology or evolution.

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