Biology Chapter on Cellular Metabolism and Bacteria
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary output of the citric acid cycle per turn?

  • Six CO2
  • One ATP (correct)
  • Two NADH
  • Two Acetyl CoA

Which process occurs if oxygen is absent during pyruvate metabolism in animals?

  • Glycolysis
  • Citric Acid Cycle
  • Oxidative Phosphorylation
  • Fermentation (correct)

What is a key feature of glycolysis?

  • It directly generates 38 ATP
  • It requires oxygen
  • It produces two molecules of pyruvate (correct)
  • It occurs in the mitochondria

What occurs during chemiosmosis?

<p>Production of ATP via ATP synthase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many ATP molecules are produced during glycolysis?

<p>Two ATP (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following structures is found in prokaryotic cells but not in eukaryotic cells?

<p>Capsule (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What component is present in the cell wall of bacteria but not in archaea?

<p>Peptidoglycan (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of ribosomes in prokaryotic cells?

<p>Protein synthesis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these characteristics is common to both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

<p>Cell membrane (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bacteria is characterized by a long rod shape twisted into a rigid spiral?

<p>Spirilla (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a function of the glycocalyx in some bacteria?

<p>Aids in attachment to surfaces (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of bacteria is known for being flexible spirals?

<p>Spirochete (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about eukaryotic cells is correct?

<p>They possess a nucleus. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do proto-oncogenes play in the cell cycle?

<p>They encode proteins that promote the cell cycle and prevent apoptosis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when tumor suppressor genes are mutated?

<p>They fail to inhibit the cell cycle. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the entry into the cell cycle?

<p>Growth factors and other signals. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does uncontrolled cell growth relate to cancer development?

<p>It results from genetic mutations affecting cell cycle regulation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of a damaged cell completing mitosis?

<p>It can lead to uncontrolled growth and cancer development. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the smallest unit of life?

<p>Cell (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true regarding the classification of living organisms?

<p>Domain is the highest category in classification. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the Fungi Kingdom?

<p>Heterotrophic and non-mobile (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of a control group in an experiment?

<p>It serves as a constant variable not exposed to the experimental variable. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'model organisms' refer to in scientific research?

<p>Organisms used in experiments to study human-like processes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the experimental variable in an experiment?

<p>The factor that is manipulated during the experiment. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important for scientific studies to be peer-reviewed?

<p>To verify the validity and reliability of research findings. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the response variable in the given fertilizer experiment?

<p>The change in growth of the plants. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of lysosomes in a cell?

<p>Digest unwanted materials (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is involved in the assembly and disassembly of microtubules?

<p>Centrosome (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature of chloroplasts?

<p>Contain their own DNA (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)?

<p>Synthesize and process proteins (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do cilia differ from flagella?

<p>Cilia are much shorter than flagella (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do ribosomes use as a template during protein synthesis?

<p>mRNA (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of filaments in the cytoskeleton helps maintain the structure of the nuclear envelope?

<p>Intermediate filaments (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of the Golgi apparatus in a cell?

<p>Modify and package proteins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the plasma membrane's structure?

<p>Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary end product of glycolysis?

<p>2 pyruvate molecules (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What roles do NADH and FADH$2$ play in ATP production?

<p>They are electron donors in the Krebs cycle. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key function of chlorophyll in photosynthesis?

<p>It absorbs light energy. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the main raw materials required for photosynthesis?

<p>Water and carbon dioxide (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria?

<p>Krebs Cycle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the Calvin Cycle in photosynthesis?

<p>To reduce CO2 to form carbohydrates. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of the cell cycle does DNA synthesis occur?

<p>S Phase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the process of photolysis in photosynthesis?

<p>Water molecules are split. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of checkpoints in the cell cycle?

<p>To control timing of cell division (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of photosynthesis involves capturing CO2 at night?

<p>CAM Photosynthesis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is produced as a result of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis?

<p>ATP and NADPH (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of cyclins in the cell cycle?

<p>They regulate the timing of cell division. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What specifically occurs during the regeneration phase of the Calvin Cycle?

<p>RuBP is restored. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do glycolipids play in a cell membrane?

<p>Serve as identification markers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of protein is responsible for the passage of water across a membrane?

<p>Aquaporins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during endocytosis?

<p>Cells intake materials using vesicles (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does active transport differ from facilitated transport?

<p>Active transport requires energy while facilitated does not (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which solution causes a cell to lose water and potentially undergo crenation?

<p>Hypertonic solution (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of carrier proteins in cell membranes?

<p>To transport molecules by altering their shape (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of endocytosis involves the uptake of large particles?

<p>Phagocytosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which protein type is involved in the direct initiation of a cellular response upon binding with a molecule?

<p>Receptor proteins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is required for transport against a concentration gradient?

<p>Carrier proteins and energy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines an isotonic solution?

<p>Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors does NOT influence the rate of diffusion?

<p>Cell's energy levels (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of exocytosis?

<p>To release substances from the cell (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is osmotic pressure related to water movement?

<p>Greater osmotic pressure increases the likelihood of water diffusion into that direction (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do enzymes play in chemical reactions?

<p>They are typically proteins that act as catalysts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to an enzyme when temperature exceeds its optimal range?

<p>The enzyme undergoes denaturation and loses function. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about phosphorylation in coupled reactions?

<p>It is the transfer of a phosphate group to a reactant. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following processes does NOT involve ATP?

<p>Direct breakdown of glucose (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do cofactors assist enzymes?

<p>They enhance the enzyme's activity during reactions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of the induced fit model of enzyme action?

<p>The active site undergoes a shape change upon substrate binding. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of cellular respiration?

<p>To release energy for ATP production. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme cofactor helps in the electron transport chain?

<p>NADH (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which phase of cellular respiration is pyruvate converted to acetyl CoA?

<p>Preparatory reaction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about oxidation-reduction reactions is correct?

<p>Oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is the gain of electrons. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT influence enzymatic speed?

<p>Intensity of sunlight (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the inheritance pattern characterized by one allele being completely dominant over the other?

<p>Complete dominance (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during degradation in enzymatic reactions?

<p>A substrate breaks into multiple products. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines metabolic pathways?

<p>Series of linked reactions leading to an end product. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following traits is an example of codominance?

<p>ABO blood type (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of inheritance involves more than two alleles existing for a single trait?

<p>Multiple allele inheritance (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of cyanide in metabolic reactions?

<p>It acts as an enzyme inhibitor. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the energy stored in ATP utilized in endergonic reactions?

<p>By coupling with exergonic reactions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the expected phenotype ratio for a dihybrid cross resulting in two independently assorted traits?

<p>9:3:3:1 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which disorder requires two recessive alleles to be expressed?

<p>Tay-Sachs disease (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Chi Square in scientific studies?

<p>It is used to verify the reliability of the study's conclusions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a feature of autosomal dominant disorders?

<p>Manifestation in every generation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which set of elements makes up 95% of all organisms?

<p>Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of valence electrons in an atom?

<p>To engage in bonding with other atoms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does polygenic inheritance affect phenotypes?

<p>Leads to continuous variation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What genetic disorder is characterized by abnormal hemoglobin and sickle-shaped red blood cells?

<p>Sickle-cell disease (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are ionic bonds characterized?

<p>By one atom donating electrons to another (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes a polar covalent bond?

<p>Electrons are shared unequally due to differences in electronegativity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about gametes is true?

<p>They are formed by meiosis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do hydrogen bonds play in water's properties?

<p>They help water maintain a uniform temperature. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic phenotype of a heterozygous individual in incomplete dominance?

<p>It shows an intermediate phenotype. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about organic molecules is true?

<p>They always contain both carbon and hydrogen. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What correctly defines a polymer?

<p>A large molecule made from many repeated subunits. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the lac operon when lactose is absent?

<p>The repressor protein binds to the operator. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does RNA polymerase play in the lac operon when lactose is present?

<p>It transcribes the genes responsible for lactose metabolism. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a hydration reaction, what is removed to form a polymer?

<p>A hydroxyl group and a hydrogen atom (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the lac operon as an inducible operon?

<p>It requires lactose to be present for activation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the key advantages of small cell size in multicellular organisms?

<p>It allows easier nutrient absorption and waste removal. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects cell theory?

<p>Cells are the basic units of structure and function in organisms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where is the repressor protein encoded in relation to the lac operon?

<p>On a separate regulatory gene outside the operon. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of collagen in the extracellular matrix (ECM)?

<p>Resists stretching (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily distinguishes eukaryotic regulation of gene expression from prokaryotic regulation?

<p>Eukaryotic genes have individual promoters. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'electronegativity' refer to?

<p>The tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a covalent bond. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does lactose have on the repressor protein in the lac operon?

<p>It binds to the repressor, preventing it from binding to the operator. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which description correctly represents eukaryotic cells?

<p>Cells that possess a membrane-bound nucleus. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of endocytosis involves specific molecules binding to receptor proteins?

<p>Receptor-mediated endocytosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main component of a plant cell wall?

<p>Cellulose (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the operator in the lac operon?

<p>It is where the repressor protein can bind to block transcription. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the repressor protein is bound to the operator sequence?

<p>Transcription of the operon genes is blocked. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the first law of thermodynamics state?

<p>Energy cannot be changed from one form to another without a loss of usable energy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of cellular reaction is characterized by the formation of products with more free energy than the reactants?

<p>Endergonic reactions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of junction connects the cytoskeletal filaments of adjacent cells?

<p>Adhesion Junctions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of energy transformation occurs during cellular respiration?

<p>Chemical energy to thermal energy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of proteoglycans in the extracellular matrix?

<p>Assist in cell signaling (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following transformations represents an increase in entropy?

<p>Breaking down carbohydrates into CO2 and water (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the second law of thermodynamics apply to energy conversion processes?

<p>No energy conversion process is ever 100% efficient (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does ATP play in cells?

<p>It functions as the energy currency of the cell (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of energy is stored in the chemical bonds of glucose?

<p>Chemical energy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of plasmodesmata in plant cells?

<p>To allow exchange of materials between adjacent cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of energy is associated with the movement of a muscle cell?

<p>Kinetic energy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the P53 gene play in cancer prevention?

<p>It acts as a transcription factor to inhibit cell cycle progression. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes cancer cells?

<p>Cancer cells can escape normal cell cycle regulations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of germ-line mutations?

<p>They can affect the entire organism's cells. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do cancer cells commonly migrate and form new tumors?

<p>Through a process known as metastasis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the process of angiogenesis in tumors?

<p>Blood vessels are formed to supply the tumor. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of restriction enzymes in recombinant DNA technology?

<p>They cut DNA at specific sequences. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of mutation involves the insertion or deletion of nucleotide bases?

<p>Frameshift mutation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key use of gene cloning in biotechnology?

<p>Producing large quantities of proteins like insulin. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of a mutation affecting tumor suppressor genes?

<p>Reduced ability to induce apoptosis. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately differentiates somatic mutations from germ-line mutations?

<p>Somatic mutations affect only specific tissues, while germ-line mutations affect all cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do transcription factors play in gene expression?

<p>They help RNA polymerase bind to a promoter. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What modification is made to primary mRNA to produce mature mRNA?

<p>Addition of a 5’ guanine cap and a poly-A tail. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do somatic mutations differ from germ-line mutations?

<p>Somatic mutations occur in non-reproductive cells. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a cause of mutations?

<p>Transcription factors binding to genes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential effect of point mutations?

<p>The production of a STOP codon. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes frameshift mutations?

<p>They involve the insertion or deletion of nucleotides. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do transposons play in gene expression?

<p>They can alter neighboring gene expression. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do mutagens affect DNA?

<p>They cause DNA alterations leading to mutations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about post-translational control is true?

<p>It involves chemical modifications to proteins. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of an incomplete protein due to a point mutation?

<p>Potential disruption of metabolic pathways. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is typical of polygenic traits?

<p>They follow a bell-shaped curve distribution. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does nutrition affect the phenotype of height?

<p>It can enhance the expression of height-related genes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does temperature have on primrose flower color?

<p>Temperature influences the color of flowers. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which strain of bacteria was found to be virulent in Griffith's experiment?

<p>S strain. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the significant conclusion of Oswald Avery's experiments?

<p>DNA is responsible for transformation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the Hershey-Chase experiment demonstrate?

<p>DNA is the genetic material. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the structure of DNA?

<p>Composed of a double helix of nucleotides. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which nucleotides pair together in DNA?

<p>Adenine with Thymine and Guanine with Cytosine. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of DNase in the context of Avery's experiment?

<p>To prevent DNA transformation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of the two DNA strands?

<p>They are antiparallel to each other. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of bonds hold the two strands of a DNA double helix together?

<p>Hydrogen bonds. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component is NOT part of a nucleotide in DNA?

<p>Ribose sugar. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the process of DNA replication?

<p>One DNA double helix forms two identical double helices. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause that initiates the development of cancer?

<p>Mutation in cell DNA (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes diploid cells in humans?

<p>They have pairs of chromosomes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids separate and become individual chromosomes?

<p>Anaphase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between cytokinesis in plant and animal cells?

<p>Plant cells form a cell plate whereas animal cells split the existing cytoplasm. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which phase of meiosis is characterized by the pairing of homologous chromosomes?

<p>Prophase I (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many chromatids are present in a single chromosome after DNA replication and before mitosis?

<p>Two sister chromatids (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of fertilization in terms of chromosome number?

<p>Restores diploid (2n) chromosome number (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the Law of Segregation?

<p>Each gamete contains only one factor from each pair. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is true about the genetic composition of homologous chromosomes?

<p>They carry similar types of genes at the same loci. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What determines whether a trait is expressed as dominant or recessive in genetics?

<p>The rules regarding how alleles behave during segregation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In oogenesis, what is the fate of the polar body produced during meiosis?

<p>It disintegrates and does not contribute to fertilization. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best explains genetic variation during meiosis?

<p>Independent assortment occurs in meiosis I. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the physical appearance resulting from genotype?

<p>Phenotype (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of spindle fibers during mitosis?

<p>To separate sister chromatids and distribute them equally. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does helicase play during DNA replication?

<p>It separates the DNA strands to allow replication. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the term 'semiconservative' in the context of DNA replication?

<p>Each new DNA molecule contains one old and one new strand. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which stage of transcription does RNA polymerase add complementary RNA nucleotides?

<p>Elongation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the processing of pre-mRNA in eukaryotic cells?

<p>A guanine cap is added to the 5’ end. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the ribosome is primarily responsible for decoding mRNA into protein?

<p>Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In gene expression, what function does the promoter region serve?

<p>It is where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of tRNA in the process of translation?

<p>It transports amino acids to the ribosome. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What feature allows the DNA double helix to serve as a template for mRNA formation during transcription?

<p>The strands are antiparallel and complementary. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes what happens to introns during mRNA processing?

<p>Introns are removed from the pre-mRNA. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the genetic code use to encode amino acids?

<p>Triplet codons of three nucleotides (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the order of mRNA codons affect the synthesis of proteins?

<p>It governs the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In eukaryotes, what modifications occur to mRNA after transcription but before it is translated?

<p>Addition of a poly-A tail and guanine cap. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the initial step that RNA polymerase performs during transcription?

<p>Binding to the promoter region. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Cell

The smallest unit of life.

Organism

A living thing, such as a plant, animal, or fungus.

Scientific Name

Genus name + specific epithet, italicized and written in Latin.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the experimental variable; used for comparison.

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Experimental Variable

The factor being tested or changed in an experiment.

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Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two variables.

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Kingdom Plantae

Multicellular Organisms that usually make their own food through photosynthesis (e.g.: Trees, Flowers).

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Kingdom Animalia

Multicellular, heterotrophic (must consume food) organisms

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Prokaryotic Cells

Cells lacking a membrane-bound nucleus, found in Bacteria and Archaea domains. They are typically unicellular and can exist as single cells, chains, or clusters.

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What are the domains of prokaryotes?

Prokaryotes belong to the domains Bacteria and Archaea.

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Cell Wall in Prokaryotes

A rigid structure outside the plasma membrane, primarily composed of peptidoglycan, providing structural support and maintaining cell shape.

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Nucleoid

A region within the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell where the single circular chromosome is located.

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Capsule

A gelatinous layer surrounding the cell wall of some bacteria, providing protection against dehydration and immune system attacks.

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Eukaryotic Cells

Cells with a true membrane-bound nucleus and other internal organelles, found in animals, plants, fungi, and protists.

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Primary Cell Wall

The outermost layer of the cell wall in plant cells, composed primarily of cellulose, providing structural support and protection.

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Ribosomes

Cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. Prokaryotes have smaller ribosomes than eukaryotes.

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Lignin

A complex organic polymer that strengthens plant cell walls, providing rigidity and support.

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Chitin

A strong, flexible polysaccharide that forms the cell walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans.

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Chromatin

A complex of DNA and histone proteins that forms the building blocks of chromosomes.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

A network of interconnected membranes within the cytoplasm involved in protein and lipid synthesis, folding, and transportation.

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Rough ER

Part of the ER with ribosomes attached, responsible for protein synthesis and initial modifications.

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Smooth ER

Part of the ER without ribosomes, involved in lipid synthesis and other metabolic processes.

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Golgi Apparatus

A cellular organelle that processes, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids synthesized by the ER.

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Atom

The smallest part of an element retaining its properties, made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

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Protons

Positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom.

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Neutrons

Neutral particles found in the nucleus of an atom.

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Electrons

Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus.

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Periodic Table

A table that organizes elements by their atomic number and properties.

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Electron Shells

Energy levels that electrons occupy around the nucleus.

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Valence Shell

The outermost electron shell of an atom.

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Molecule

A group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

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Compound

A substance formed by two or more DIFFERENT elements combined chemically in a fixed ratio.

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Ionic Bond

Chemical bond formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms, creating charged ions.

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Covalent Bond

Chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.

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Carbohydrates

Organic molecules that provide energy and structure to living organisms.

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Monosaccharides

The simplest form of carbohydrates (sugars).

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Glycogen

Storage form of glucose in animals.

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Cell Theory

A fundamental concept stating that all living things are made of cells; cells are the basic units of living things; and all cells come from other cells

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Glycolysis

The breakdown of glucose into two pyruvate molecules, occurring in the cytoplasm of cells. It doesn't require oxygen (anaerobic) and is a fundamental energy-producing process in all living organisms.

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Pyruvate

A 3-carbon molecule produced from the breakdown of glucose during glycolysis. Its fate depends on the presence or absence of oxygen. With oxygen, it enters the mitochondria for further energy production. Without oxygen, it's converted to lactate or ethanol.

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Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

A series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that oxidizes acetyl CoA, generating ATP, carbon dioxide, and electron carriers. It's a key stage in cellular respiration, generating energy from food.

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Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

A series of protein complexes embedded in the mitochondrial membrane that transfer electrons from one carrier to another, releasing energy and ultimately producing ATP. It's the final stage of cellular respiration and a major generator of energy.

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Chemiosmosis

The process where hydrogen ions (protons) flow across a membrane through a special protein channel (ATP synthase), driving the production of ATP. This is a critical part of the ETC process.

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Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis where the cell takes in fluids and small particles by engulfing them in small vesicles.

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Receptor-mediated endocytosis

A highly specific type of pinocytosis where cells take in specific molecules that bind to receptor proteins on the cell surface.

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Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

A network of proteins and polysaccharides that surrounds cells, providing support, structure, and communication.

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Collagen

A fibrous protein in the ECM that provides resistance to stretching.

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Elastin

A protein in the ECM that allows for flexibility and resilience.

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Fibronectin

An adhesive protein in the ECM that connects to integrin, which in turn links to the cytoskeleton, helping to integrate the ECM with the cell.

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Proteoglycans

Polysaccharides in the ECM that resist compression, regulate molecule passage, and help with cell signaling.

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Adhesion Junctions

Junctions that connect the cytoskeletal filaments of adjacent cells, providing strong adhesion.

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Tight Junctions

Junctions that form impermeable barriers between cells by connecting their plasma membranes.

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Gap Junctions

Junctions that allow communication and transport between cells by forming channels between their plasma membranes.

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Cellulose

The main component of plant cell walls, providing structural support and rigidity.

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Plasmodesmata

Narrow channels that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent plant cells, allowing communication and transport of materials.

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Kinetic Energy

The energy of movement or motion.

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Potential Energy

Stored energy that has the potential to do work.

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What does 'integral protein' mean?

An integral protein spans the entire width of the cell membrane, unlike peripheral proteins which only associate with one side.

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What is a glycoprotein?

A glycoprotein is a protein with attached carbohydrates, often acting as an identification marker for cells.

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What do channel proteins do?

Channel proteins facilitate the transport of specific solutes across the cell membrane.

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What is a carrier protein?

A carrier protein helps a specific solute cross the membrane by binding to it.

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What does a receptor protein do?

A receptor protein with a specific shape binds to a specific molecule, triggering a cellular response.

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What is the role of an enzymatic protein?

An enzymatic protein acts as a catalyst to speed up metabolic reactions within the cell.

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What is a concentration gradient?

The difference in concentration of a substance between two regions.

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What is diffusion?

The movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

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What is osmosis?

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a high water concentration to a lower water concentration.

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What is an isotonic solution?

A solution with equal solute concentration inside and outside a cell. There is no net movement of water.

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What is a hypotonic solution?

A solution with lower solute concentration than inside a cell, causing the cell to gain water and potentially burst.

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What is a hypertonic solution?

A solution with higher solute concentration than inside a cell, causing the cell to lose water and shrink.

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What is facilitated transport?

The movement of molecules across a membrane with the help of carrier proteins, but without requiring energy.

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What is active transport?

The movement of molecules across a membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy (ATP).

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What is bulk transport?

The movement of large molecules into or out of cells using vesicles, which requires energy to form.

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Coupled Reactions

A process where energy released from an exergonic reaction (energy releasing) is used to drive an endergonic reaction (energy requiring).

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ATP Hydrolysis

The breakdown of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate group, releasing energy.

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Phosphorylation

The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule. Often used to energize reactants or change their shape.

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Enzyme

A biological catalyst, usually a protein, that speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed in the process.

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Energy of Activation

The minimum amount of energy required for reactants to start a chemical reaction.

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How do enzymes lower the energy of activation?

Enzymes provide an alternative reaction pathway with a lower energy of activation, making it easier for reactants to form products.

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Active Site

The specific region on an enzyme where the substrate binds.

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Induced Fit Model

The theory that the active site of an enzyme changes shape slightly to accommodate the substrate, making the fit more precise.

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Factors affecting enzymatic speed

Enzymatic reaction rates can be influenced by substrate concentration, temperature, pH, and enzyme activation/inhibition.

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Enzyme Inhibition

The process of slowing down or stopping enzyme activity by blocking or altering the active site.

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Enzyme Cofactor

A non-protein molecule, either inorganic (metals) or organic (coenzymes), that assists an enzyme in its function.

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Oxidation

The loss of electrons from a molecule.

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Reduction

The gain of electrons by a molecule.

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Cellular Respiration

The process where cells break down glucose to generate ATP (energy) for cellular functions.

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Glycolysis End Product

The final product of glycolysis is two pyruvate molecules.

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Acetyl CoA Role

Acetyl CoA carries two carbon units into the Krebs cycle, which is a key step in cellular respiration.

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Krebs Cycle Output

The Krebs cycle produces 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP molecules per two Acetyl CoA molecules.

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Electron Transport Chain Role

The electron transport chain uses NADH and FADH2 to create a proton gradient, which drives ATP synthesis.

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Photosynthesis Aim

Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy stored in carbohydrates.

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Autotroph Definition

Organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis.

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Heterotroph Definition

Organisms that obtain energy by consuming other organisms.

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Oxidation Meaning

Oxidation is the loss of electrons.

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Reduction Meaning

Reduction is the gain of electrons.

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Chlorophyll Function

Chlorophyll absorbs light energy (photons) to power photosynthesis.

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Photosynthesis Location

Photosynthesis takes place mainly in the leaves of plants, specifically in the mesophyll tissue.

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Stomata Function

Stomata are small openings in the leaves that allow carbon dioxide to enter and oxygen to exit during photosynthesis.

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Chloroplast Structure

Chloroplasts are organelles with a double membrane, stroma (fluid), and thylakoids (internal membrane system) where photosynthesis occurs.

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Light & Calvin Reactions

Light reactions capture solar energy and produce ATP and NADPH, while Calvin reactions use those molecules to create carbohydrates.

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Electromagnetic Spectrum and Photosynthesis

Photosynthetic pigments, like chlorophyll, absorb specific wavelengths of visible light, primarily violet, indigo, blue, and red.

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Gamete Formation

The process of creating haploid gametes from diploid cells through meiosis, where homologous chromosomes separate, ensuring each gamete receives only one allele for each trait.

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Gamete Alleles

Gametes, being haploid, contain only one allele for each trait, inheriting one from each parent's homologous chromosome pair.

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Genotype vs. Gamete

The genotype of an individual has two copies of each allele for a trait, but a gamete contains only one copy of each allele, resulting from separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis.

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Incomplete Dominance

A pattern of inheritance where the heterozygote exhibits a phenotype intermediate between those of the homozygous parent.

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Familial Hypercholesterolemia

An incompletely dominant genetic disorder linked to a gene controlling the number of LDL cholesterol receptors, resulting in high cholesterol levels.

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Multiple Allele Inheritance

A genetic pattern where a trait is controlled by multiple alleles, with each individual possessing only two of those alleles.

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ABO Blood Types

An example of multiple allele inheritance, where three alleles (I^A, I^B, I^O) determine blood type, with individuals possessing only two alleles.

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Codominance

Inheritance where both alleles in a heterozygote are equally expressed, resulting in a phenotype that exhibits both alleles' traits.

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Rh Factor

An inherited characteristic separate from ABO blood types, where Rh-positive individuals have the Rh antigen on their red blood cells.

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Polygenic Inheritance

Inheritance involving multiple genes, each with two or more alleles, contributing additively to a continuous variation of phenotypes.

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Carcinogenesis

The multi-stage process of cancer development, involving disruption of normal cell division and behavior.

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Proto-oncogenes

Normal genes that regulate cell growth and division; when mutated, they become oncogenes, promoting uncontrolled cell growth.

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Tumor suppressor genes

Genes that normally prevent uncontrolled cell growth and division; mutations in these genes can lead to cancer development.

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Diploid (2n)

Cells having two sets of chromosomes, one set from each parent.

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Haploid (1n)

Cells having only one set of chromosomes, found in gametes (sperm and egg).

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Mitosis

Cell division that produces two daughter cells genetically identical to the parent cell, maintaining the same chromosome number.

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Sister chromatids

Two identical copies of a chromosome attached at the centromere, formed during DNA replication.

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Centromere

The constricted region of a chromosome where sister chromatids are held together.

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Spindle fibers

Microtubule fibers that attach to chromosomes during mitosis and pull them apart to opposite poles.

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Centrosomes

Structures in animal cells that organize microtubules and spindle fibers for chromosome separation during mitosis.

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Prophase

The first stage of mitosis, where chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle fibers form.

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Metaphase

The stage of mitosis where chromosomes align along the metaphase plate, ready for separation.

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Anaphase

The stage of mitosis where sister chromatids separate, pulled apart by spindle fibers towards opposite poles.

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What is an operon?

A cluster of genes in prokaryotes, usually related to a metabolic pathway, controlled by a single promoter and operator.

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What is a promoter?

A DNA sequence where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription.

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What is an operator?

A DNA sequence in an operon where a repressor protein can bind to control gene expression.

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What is an inducible operon?

An operon that is normally inactive but can be turned on by a specific molecule (inducer).

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How does the lac operon work?

The lac operon controls lactose metabolism. In the absence of lactose, a repressor protein binds to the operator, blocking transcription. When lactose is present, it binds to the repressor, making it inactive, allowing transcription.

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What is a repressible operon?

An operon that is normally active but can be turned off by a specific molecule (repressor).

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How does gene regulation differ between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

Prokaryotes use operons with a single promoter for multiple genes, while eukaryotes have separate promoters for each gene. Eukaryotes also have more complex regulation with multiple mechanisms.

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How is gene expression regulated in eukaryotes?

Eukaryotes regulate gene expression by controlling factors such as transcription initiation, RNA processing, translation, and protein degradation.

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DNA Replication

The process of copying a DNA molecule to create two identical DNA molecules.

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Semiconservative Replication

Each new DNA molecule consists of one original (parent) strand and one newly synthesized strand.

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Helicase

An enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix, separating the two strands.

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DNA Polymerase

An enzyme that adds new nucleotides to the growing DNA strand, following base pairing rules.

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Leading Strand

The strand of DNA that is synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction, following the DNA helicase.

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Lagging Strand

The strand of DNA that is synthesized discontinuously in short fragments (Okazaki fragments) in the 5' to 3' direction.

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Okazaki Fragments

Short segments of DNA synthesized on the lagging strand during DNA replication.

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DNA Ligase

An enzyme that joins Okazaki fragments together, creating a continuous DNA strand.

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Gene Expression

The process of using the information in a gene to create a protein.

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Transcription

The process of copying the DNA sequence into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule.

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Translation

The process of using the mRNA sequence to create a protein.

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RNA Polymerase

An enzyme that synthesizes mRNA from a DNA template.

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Codon

A three-nucleotide sequence in mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid.

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Anticodon

A three-nucleotide sequence in tRNA that is complementary to a codon in mRNA.

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Polygenic Trait

A trait influenced by multiple genes, resulting in a continuous distribution of phenotypes (bell-shaped curve).

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Environmental Influence on Traits

Environmental factors can affect how genes are expressed. For example, proper nutrition can maximize growth potential, even with good genes.

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What is the Griffith experiment?

A classic experiment demonstrating that DNA is the genetic material. Griffith showed that a harmless bacterial strain could be transformed into a deadly one by exposure to the DNA of a killed deadly strain.

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What did the Avery experiment prove?

Avery's experiment built on Griffith's findings and confirmed that DNA was the transforming substance. They used enzymes to selectively destroy different molecules and showed that only the destruction of DNA prevented transformation.

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Hershey-Chase Experiment

This experiment definitively proved DNA as the genetic material. It showed that only DNA, not protein, from a virus enters a bacterium and causes changes in its activity.

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What is a Bacteriophage?

A virus that infects bacteria. It is often used as a tool to study genetics.

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DNA Structure

DNA is a double helix, made up of two strands of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar, and one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).

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What are the base pairing rules in DNA?

Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always pairs with cytosine (C). This pairing is based on hydrogen bonding.

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Antiparallel Strands

The two DNA strands run in opposite directions. One strand runs 5' to 3', while the other runs 3' to 5'. This is crucial for DNA replication.

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What are the 3 major steps in DNA replication?

  1. Initiation: The DNA helix unwinds and separates. 2. Elongation: New nucleotides are added to create new strands, following base pairing rules. 3. Termination: Replication ends when the entire DNA molecule is copied.
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Why is enzyme helicase important in DNA replication?

Helicase is an enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix, separating the two strands, and allowing for access to the template sequences for replication.

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What does DNA polymerase do during replication?

DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides to the growing strand, ensuring that each new strand is complementary to the template strand. It also proofreads the new strand for errors.

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What are Okazaki fragments?

During DNA replication, the lagging strand is synthesized in short, discontinuous fragments called Okazaki fragments. These fragments are then joined together by DNA ligase.

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What is the role of DNA ligase in DNA replication?

DNA ligase joins the Okazaki fragments together to form a continuous strand of DNA. It's the 'glue' that binds the fragments together.

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PKU

A genetic disorder caused by a deficiency in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, leading to the buildup of phenylalanine in the body.

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Albinism

A genetic condition characterized by a lack of melanin production, resulting in pale skin, hair, and eyes.

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Oncogene

A gene that can cause cancer when mutated or abnormally activated.

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Malignant Tumor

A cancerous tumor that has the ability to invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body.

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Metastasis

The spread of cancer cells from the original tumor to other parts of the body.

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Germ-line Mutation

A genetic change that occurs in a germ cell (sperm or egg) and is passed on to offspring.

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Somatic Mutation

A genetic change that occurs in a body cell after conception and is not passed on to offspring.

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Point Mutation

A change in a single nucleotide base in a DNA sequence.

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Gene Control Levels

Eukaryotic genes are regulated at multiple stages, from DNA accessibility to protein activity, ensuring precise gene expression.

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Pre-Transcriptional Control

This level regulates gene expression BEFORE transcription by controlling DNA accessibility. Methods include DNA methylation and chromatin packing.

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Transcriptional Control

This level regulates gene expression DURING transcription, involving specific protein-DNA interactions at promoter and enhancer regions.

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Post-Transcriptional Control

This level regulates gene expression AFTER transcription, involving mRNA processing and modification.

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Translational Control

This level regulates gene expression DURING translation, affecting the amount of protein produced from mRNA.

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Post-Translational Control

This level regulates gene expression AFTER translation by modifying proteins after synthesis.

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Gene Mutation

A permanent change in the DNA sequence, potentially affecting gene expression or protein function.

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Frameshift Mutation

An insertion or deletion of nucleotides in DNA, shifting the reading frame and often producing a nonfunctional protein.

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Nonfunctional Protein

A protein that lacks normal function due to a mutation, potentially disrupting a metabolic pathway.

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Cell cycle malfunction

A disruption in the normal sequence of events that regulate cell division. This can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and the development of cancer.

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How do proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes relate to cancer?

Proto-oncogenes promote cell growth, and tumor suppressor genes inhibit it. Mutations in either type can lead to uncontrolled cell growth, a hallmark of cancer.

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Study Notes

Cell Structure and Function

  • Cells are the fundamental units of life.
  • Tissues are groups of similar cells performing a specific function.
  • Organs are formed from several tissues.
  • Organ systems are assembled from organs.
  • The plant kingdom consists of multicellular, photosynthetic organisms.
  • The fungi kingdom includes molds and mushrooms (heterotrophic).
  • The animal kingdom consists of multicellular organisms that consume food.

Classification

  • Biological classification uses a hierarchical system: Domain → Supergroup → Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species.
  • Systematics helps scientists understand and categorize the diversity of life.

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

  • Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (bacteria and archaea).
  • Eukaryotic cells possess a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (animals, plants, fungi, protists).
  • Prokaryotic cells are usually unicellular; some are beneficial.
  • Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells.
  • Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles that carry out specific functions.

Cell Components

  • Cell Wall (Plants, Fungi): Provides structural support and protection. Plant cell walls contain cellulose, while fungal cell walls contain chitin.
  • Plasma Membrane: Regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell. It's a phospholipid bilayer (hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails).
  • Nucleus: Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA).
  • Ribosomes: Synthesize proteins.
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and detoxifies substances; Rough ER has ribosomes and synthesizes proteins.
  • Golgi Apparatus: Processes, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids.
  • Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for breaking down waste.
  • Vacuoles (Plants): Store water, nutrients, and other substances.
  • Chloroplasts (Plants): Sites of photosynthesis.
  • Mitochondria: Sites of cellular respiration.
  • Cytoskeleton: A network of protein fibers that provides structural support and facilitates movement.
  • Prokaryotic Cell Structures: Capsule, flagellum, fimbriae, nucleoid, thylakoids.

Cell Transport

  • Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration (down a concentration gradient).
  • Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane. Isotonic solutions maintain equilibrium. Hypotonic solutions cause cells to swell. Hypertonic solutions cause cells to shrink.
  • Facilitated Transport: Passive transport using carrier proteins (down the concentration gradient, no energy required).
  • Active Transport: Movement of molecules against a concentration gradient (requires energy, ATP).
  • Bulk Transport: Endocytosis (materials entering the cell) and exocytosis (materials leaving the cell) via vesicles. These processes require energy.

Energy and Metabolism

  • Photosynthesis: Transformation of light energy into chemical energy (carbohydrates).
  • Cellular Respiration: Breakdown of glucose to release energy for ATP synthesis. This process consists of glycolysis, the preparatory reaction, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain.
  • ATP: The primary energy currency of cells.
  • Enzyme Function: Enzymes catalyze reactions, lowering the activation energy. Factors affecting enzyme activity include temperature, pH, and substrate concentration.
  • Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in a cell (catabolism breaks down molecules, anabolism builds them).

Genetics

  • DNA Structure: Double helix with a sugar-phosphate backbone and complementary base pairing (A with T, C with G).
  • DNA Replication: Semiconservative process; each new DNA molecule contains one original strand and one new strand.
  • Transcription: DNA sequence is used to synthesize mRNA.
  • Translation: mRNA sequence is used to synthesize a polypeptide chain (protein).
  • Genetic Code: A triplet code where each three-nucleotide codon specifies a particular amino acid.
  • tRNA: Carries amino acids to the ribosome during translation.
  • Ribosomes: Site of translation, where polypeptides are synthesized.
  • Gene Expression Regulation: Mechanisms that control which genes are expressed and when.
  • Mutations: Changes in DNA sequence, which can have various effects on protein function. Includes point mutations, frameshift mutations, and mutations related to transposons.
  • Cancer: Uncontrolled cell growth and division, often linked to mutations in genes controlling cell growth and death. Cancer cells avoid apoptosis, undergo angiogenesis, and develop resistance to signals that normally control cell division.
  • Chromosome Numbers: Diploid (2n) cells have two copies of each chromosome; haploid (n) cells have one copy.
  • Mitosis: Cell division for growth and repair; results in two identical diploid daughter cells.
  • Meiosis: Cell division for the production of gametes (sex cells); results in four haploid daughter cells. Crossing over and independent assortment are mechanisms for genetic variation.

Biotechnology

  • Genetic Engineering: Modifying an organism's genome using DNA technology.
  • Cloning: Producing identical copies of an organism, cell, or DNA.
  • Recombinant DNA Technology: Combining DNA from different sources to create novel DNA molecules.
  • Restriction Enzymes: Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences.

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Test your knowledge on the intricacies of cellular metabolism and the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in this quiz. Explore topics like the citric acid cycle, glycolysis, and bacteria classification. Ideal for biology students wanting to strengthen their understanding of cellular processes.

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