Podcast
Questions and Answers
In humans, on which chromosome pairs are nucleolar organizers (NORs) located?
In humans, on which chromosome pairs are nucleolar organizers (NORs) located?
The nucleus is not involved in RNA synthesis.
The nucleus is not involved in RNA synthesis.
False (B)
What are the two main components of ribosomes?
What are the two main components of ribosomes?
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the place of synthesis of ______ and steroids.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the place of synthesis of ______ and steroids.
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Match the type of endoplasmic reticulum with its corresponding function:
Match the type of endoplasmic reticulum with its corresponding function:
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Which elements are classified as macroelements?
Which elements are classified as macroelements?
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Trace elements occur in cells in the mg/g range, but their required intake is on the scale of µg/g.
Trace elements occur in cells in the mg/g range, but their required intake is on the scale of µg/g.
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What is the approximate percentage of water in a living cell?
What is the approximate percentage of water in a living cell?
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Due to the difference in electronegativity between oxygen and hydrogen within a water molecule, a specialized dipole-dipole force known as a ______ bond exists.
Due to the difference in electronegativity between oxygen and hydrogen within a water molecule, a specialized dipole-dipole force known as a ______ bond exists.
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Match the element type with its approximate presence in cell mass:
Match the element type with its approximate presence in cell mass:
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What causes water molecules to combine into larger groups?
What causes water molecules to combine into larger groups?
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A carbon atom has 6 electrons in its outer shell allowing it to form many bonds.
A carbon atom has 6 electrons in its outer shell allowing it to form many bonds.
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List three ultra trace elements.
List three ultra trace elements.
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Which of the following elements are commonly found in organic compounds?
Which of the following elements are commonly found in organic compounds?
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Saturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.
Saturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.
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Name the four major families of small organic molecules found in cells.
Name the four major families of small organic molecules found in cells.
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In plants, the polysaccharide used for energy storage is called __________.
In plants, the polysaccharide used for energy storage is called __________.
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Match the following carbohydrates with their descriptions:
Match the following carbohydrates with their descriptions:
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Which of the following is a function of carbohydrates?
Which of the following is a function of carbohydrates?
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Lipids are highly soluble in water.
Lipids are highly soluble in water.
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What is the name of the carbohydrate that provides structure to the cell walls of fungi?
What is the name of the carbohydrate that provides structure to the cell walls of fungi?
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Which cell types contain lysosomes?
Which cell types contain lysosomes?
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Lysosomes contain approximately 10 hydrolytic enzymes.
Lysosomes contain approximately 10 hydrolytic enzymes.
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What is the approximate pH inside a lysosome?
What is the approximate pH inside a lysosome?
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__________ are formed by the fusion of a cell's own fragments with a primary lysosome.
__________ are formed by the fusion of a cell's own fragments with a primary lysosome.
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What two processes do autolysosomes participate in?
What two processes do autolysosomes participate in?
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Heterolysosomes are formed by the fusion of primary lysosomes with autophagosomes.
Heterolysosomes are formed by the fusion of primary lysosomes with autophagosomes.
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Match the following types of endosomes with their description:
Match the following types of endosomes with their description:
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Which of these options are correct regarding peroxisomes? (Select all that apply)
Which of these options are correct regarding peroxisomes? (Select all that apply)
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Which of the following is NOT a function of peroxisomes?
Which of the following is NOT a function of peroxisomes?
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Peroxisomes are only formed de novo from preperoxisomes.
Peroxisomes are only formed de novo from preperoxisomes.
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What byproduct of alcohol oxidation, β-oxidation, and α-oxidation is broken down by catalase or peroxidases in peroxisomes?
What byproduct of alcohol oxidation, β-oxidation, and α-oxidation is broken down by catalase or peroxidases in peroxisomes?
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The centrosome consists of two ________ made of microtubules.
The centrosome consists of two ________ made of microtubules.
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Match the following components with their description:
Match the following components with their description:
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What is the name of ovalur organelles surrounded by a double cell membrane?
What is the name of ovalur organelles surrounded by a double cell membrane?
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Plant cells do not contain plastids.
Plant cells do not contain plastids.
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What type of fatty acid is modified by α-oxidation reactions in peroxisomes, and what is the final carbon chain length after this process?
What type of fatty acid is modified by α-oxidation reactions in peroxisomes, and what is the final carbon chain length after this process?
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Which of the following ions are commonly found in cell sap?
Which of the following ions are commonly found in cell sap?
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Turgor pressure is maintained by the cell wall.
Turgor pressure is maintained by the cell wall.
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According to the endosymbiotic theory, what type of cells are mitochondria and chloroplasts believed to have originated from?
According to the endosymbiotic theory, what type of cells are mitochondria and chloroplasts believed to have originated from?
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__________ involves the synthesis of complex organic compounds from simple compounds.
__________ involves the synthesis of complex organic compounds from simple compounds.
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Match the following components of cell sap with examples:
Match the following components of cell sap with examples:
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Which of the following supports the endosymbiotic theory?
Which of the following supports the endosymbiotic theory?
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Catabolic reactions require energy input.
Catabolic reactions require energy input.
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Which of the following describes the function of metabolism?
Which of the following describes the function of metabolism?
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Flashcards
Macroelements
Macroelements
Chemical elements constituting at least 0.01% of cell mass.
Nucleolar Organizers (NORs)
Nucleolar Organizers (NORs)
Regions on chromosomes that facilitate nucleolus formation.
Functions of the Nucleus
Functions of the Nucleus
The nucleus is where DNA synthesis, RNA synthesis, and ribosome formation occur.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Covalent Bonds
Covalent Bonds
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Organic Compounds
Organic Compounds
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Four Major Organic Families
Four Major Organic Families
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Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
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Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides
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Fatty Acids
Fatty Acids
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Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fatty Acids
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Lipids
Lipids
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Peroxisome
Peroxisome
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Detoxification
Detoxification
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β-oxidation
β-oxidation
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α-oxidation
α-oxidation
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Cholesterol synthesis
Cholesterol synthesis
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Peroxisome formation
Peroxisome formation
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Centrosome
Centrosome
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Plastids
Plastids
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Cell Sap Components
Cell Sap Components
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Vacuole Functions
Vacuole Functions
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Endosymbiotic Theory
Endosymbiotic Theory
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Evidence for Endosymbiosis
Evidence for Endosymbiosis
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Anabolism
Anabolism
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Catabolism
Catabolism
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Metabolism Definition
Metabolism Definition
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Turgor Pressure
Turgor Pressure
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Lysosomes
Lysosomes
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Hydrolytic enzymes
Hydrolytic enzymes
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Primary lysosomes
Primary lysosomes
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Secondary lysosomes
Secondary lysosomes
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Autolysosomes
Autolysosomes
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Heterolysosomes
Heterolysosomes
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Autophagy
Autophagy
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Study Notes
Cell Composition and Structure
- The lecture is on cell composition and structure.
- The lecturer is Dr. Michelle Kuzma.
- The material is adapted from Dr. Danuta Mielżyńska-Švach.
- The course is Molecular Biology 2024/2025.
Areas of Cell Study
- Cytology is a top-level area.
- Cytology branches into cytochemistry, cytophysiology, cytopathology, and cytogenetics.
The Cell
- Cells are the fundamental structural and functional units of all organisms.
- All cells originate from pre-existing cells through cell division.
- Cells carry genetic information that is passed down to daughter cells during division.
- All cells are composed of similar chemical compounds.
- All metabolic processes essential for life occur within cells.
Types of Cells
- There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic and eukaryotic .
- A diagram illustrates the anatomy of a prokaryotic bacterial cell and an eukaryotic cell, featuring various cellular components and structures.
- Examples of prokaryotic cells are bacteria and archaea.
- Examples of eukaryotic cells include protozoa, algae, fungi, plants, and animals.
- A classification tree diagram illustrates the major groups within the domains Bacteria and Eukarya.
Eukaryotic Organisms
- Some eukaryotic organisms are single-celled; examples include protozoa, some algae, and some fungi.
- Multicellular eukaryotes include plants and animals, as well as fungi.
Prokaryotic Cell Components
-
Cell surface:
- cell membrane
- cell wall (mucus)
- capsule, cilia
- pili, fimbriae
- flagella
-
Cell interior:
- nucleoid (equivalent of cell nucleus)
- ribosomes
- plasmids
Eukaryotic Animal Cell Components
- cytoplasm (cytoplasmic matrix)
- cytoskeleton
- nucleus
- endoplasmic reticulum
- smooth
- rough
- mitochondria
- Golgi apparatus
- lysosomes
- peroxisomes
Cell Components
- All organisms comprise inorganic and organic chemicals.
- Inorganic materials primarily constitute non-living facets of nature.
- Organic chemicals predominantly exist in living organisms or their remnants.
Inorganic Components
- Chemical elements:
- Macroelements: at least 0.01% cell mass.
- Microelements: between 0.01–0.00001% cell mass.
- Trace elements
- Ultratrace elements
- Water (~70% of the cell).
Chemical Elements (Specific Examples)
- This section lists macro and micro-elements, including carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron, silicon, copper, manganese, fluorine, iodine, boron, molybdenum, zinc, radium, silver, and gold.
Water
- The major component of cells, accounting for 70–80% of a living cell's content.
- Water acts as a solvent for many chemical compounds.
- Water is involved in numerous biochemical reactions.
- Its structure and properties influence biological functions.
The Structure of a Water Molecule
- One oxygen atom binds to two hydrogen atoms, asymmetrically.
- Electronegativity differences in the atoms cause unequal distribution of charges.
- Molecular interactions occur amongst water molecules, leading to association.
The Structure of the Carbon Atom
- A carbon atom has six protons and six neutrons in its nucleus.
- The atom has two electron shells : one with two electrons, and another with four electrons.
The Structure of the Carbon Atom (continued)
- Carbon's four valence electrons contribute to its ability to form covalent bonds with other atoms, including other carbon atoms.
- This bonding capability allows the formation of varied carbon-based chains, branched structures, and rings in organic compounds.
- Organic compounds involve carbon bonded with other elements, notably hydrogen and oxygen, as well as nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus
Organic Components
- Cells contain four major families of small organic molecules: saccharides, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides.
- These molecules are usually free in the cytosol.
- Monomers form macromolecules.
Organic Components (categorization)
- Sugars are building blocks for larger molecules.
- Fatty Acids are used in fats and membranes.
- Amino Acids are important in protein structure and function
- Nucleotides are the building blocks for nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
- Carbohydrates include monosaccharides (one molecule, e.g., glucose, fructose), disaccharides (two molecules, e.g., sucrose, lactose), oligosaccharides (several molecules, e.g., raffinose), and polysaccharides (many molecules, e.g., cellulose, starch).
- Water solubility decreases with longer carbon chains in carbohydrates.
Carbohydrate Function
- Energy storage/production: glycogen in animals, starch in plants
- Structure: cellulose in plant cell walls, chitin in fungal cell walls, ribose and deoxyribose sugars in DNA and RNA, protein modifiers
- Transport: glucose in animals/humans, sucrose in plants.
Fatty Acids
- Fatty acids commonly contain an even number of carbon atoms (range is 14-24).
- A carboxyl group is attached to a hydrocarbon chain.
- Shorter chains result in more fluid fatty acids.
- Saturated fatty acids have only single bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
Lipids
- Lipids are esters of fatty acids bonded to alcohols.
- Examples include glycerol, sphingosine, and higher monohydric alcohols.
- Lipids are largely insoluble in water due to their limited ability to polarize.
Types of Lipids
- Simple lipids: fats and oils (triglycerides), waxes (esters with non-glycerol alcohols)
- Complex lipids: phospholipids (with phosphoric acid), glycolipids (with carbohydrates).
- Steroids have four rings.
Lipid Functions
- Structural: component of cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer).
- Energy storage: stored in animals (subcutaneous tissue), and plants (seeds, fruits, roots).
- Signaling: steroid hormones and vitamins A and D.
- Protection: protect from injuries (eye, kidneys, and other organs) and from low temperatures (marine mammals)
Cell Composition (Summary)
- Cells comprise ~70% water and ~30% other chemicals including inorganic ions, small molecules, and macromolecules.
- Macromolecules (proteins, polysaccharides, etc.) account for about 15-21%.
Cell Structure
- The internal environment (cytoplasm) is separated from the external environment by a plasma membrane.
- Organelles, which are either membrane-bound or not membrane-bound, are situated within the cytoplasm.
Cell Structure: Cell Membrane
- Every cell and its organelles are encircled by a plasma/cell membrane.
- The membrane comprises lipids, proteins, and sugars.
- The membrane's functions include protection from physical, chemical, and biological factors; responding to stimuli; catalyzing metabolic reactions; regulating substance transport; and maintaining osmotic balance.
Cell Structure: Cytoplasm
- The cytoplasm is a colloidal solution.
- It contains the cytosol (water, 90%) and dispersed substances (mostly organic compounds and minerals).
- The functions of the cytoplasm include filling the cells, holding organelles, and the site of metabolic reactions.
- Cytoplasmic movement patterns include rotational, circular, pulsating, and fountaining, according to cell types.
Cell Structure: Cytoskeleton
- The cytoskeleton consists of intermediate filaments, microtubules, and actin filaments.
- Intermediate filaments support the cell; microtubules aid in transport and organelle movement; and actin filaments contribute to cell shape.
Cell Organelles (Eukaryotic, Animal)
- A eukaryotic animal cell shows labelled organelles, such as the mitochondria, peroxisomes, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and the cytoplasmic transport vesicles.
Cell Structure: Organelles (Membrane-bound)
- Membrane-bound organelles are divided into double-membrane-bound (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts) or single-membrane-bound (e.g., Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, ER, vacuoles).
Cell Structure: Organelles (Non-Membrane-bound)
- Non-membrane-bound organelles include the cell wall external to the plasma membrane of some non-animal cells, the cytoskeleton, ribosomes, centrosome/microtubules (organizing center), and centrioles involved in cell division.
Nucleus
- Nucleus numbers vary across animal cells; for instance, 0 in erythrocytes, and 2–many in other cells.
- Shape and size depend on the cell type and state.
- It accounts for ~10% of the mammalian cell's total volume.
- Typically found in the cell's central region but can be found along the cell surface.
- The nucleus is present in three states: interphase (between divisions), mitotic, and metabolic (e.g., resting), each with specific functions.
Nucleus Structure during Interphase
- Nuclear components: nuclear envelope (membrane), nuclear matrix (nucleoplasm), nucleolus, condensed chromatin (heterochromatin), dispersed chromatin (euchromatin)
Nucleolus
- The nucleolus is present in the nucleus, lacks a membrane, and comprises different chromosome regions called nucleolar organizers (NORs).
- In humans, 10 NORs occur on specific regions of the short arms of chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.
Nucleus Function
- The nucleus is involved in DNA synthesis/replication, rRNA synthesis, and ribosome formation.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
- The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) consists of single-layer membranes, cisternae, channels, and vesicles.
- The ER enlarges internal cell surface area and divides the cytoplasm into compartments.
- ER determines transportation pathways of organelles, substrates, and products around the cell.
- It comes in smooth (agranular) and rough (granular) forms.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (Continued)
- Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and functions in lipid/steroid synthesis, removing toxins, and internal transport.
- Rough ER has ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis, modification, and quality control; It anchors to the cell membrane and other organelle membranes.
Ribosomes
- Ribosomes are composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins.
- There are free ribosomes in the cytoplasm and ribosomes bound to the endoplasmic reticulum; the former synthesize proteins functioning in the cytosol, while the latter produce proteins subject to post-translational modification that are exported.
- Mitochondrial and chloroplast ribosomes are relatively smaller (70s) compared to eukaryotic ribosomes (80s).
Mitochondria
- Mitochondrion number in a cell depends on the organism, cell type, and energy requirements of the cell.
- Mitochondria are diverse in shape (e.g., filamentous, granular, branched).
- New mitochondria are formed by the division of pre-existing ones.
- Typical cell counts vary by type; e.g., epidermal cells have 2-6, sperm cells 20–50, nerve cells ~10,000.
Mitochondrial Structure
- Mitochondria have two layers: the outer membrane, which is smooth and allows the transport of many substances, and the inner membrane, which involves passive and facilitated diffusion for regulated substance passage.
- There's an intermembrane space between the two membranes.
- The inner membrane has folds (cristae).
- Inside, there's a mitochondrial matrix that contains mtDNA, ribosomes, and enzymes required for ATP synthesis; mtDNA is organized into nucleoids.
Mitochondrial Functions
- Mitochondria are involved in aerobic respiration, including processes like the Krebs/citric acid cycle and electron transport, generating ATP (a cell energy carrier), and delivering ATP to other cell components; also moving in the cytoplasm.
Golgi Apparatus
- The Golgi apparatus has flattened, arched cisternae (3-20).
- Vesicles separate these cisternae. These cisternae are organized into cis, medial, and trans cisternae.
- The Golgi apparatus receives components from the endoplasmic reticulum or cell membrane; it modifies proteins and lipids that are destined for export; also connects other carbohydrates to them, or adds sulfate groups.
Lysosomes
- Lysosomes are vesicles with varying shapes and sizes depending on cell type and its function.
- They have a single membrane.
- Lysosomes contain an acidic interior and hydrolytic enzymes; they are involved in intracellular digestion.
Types of Lysosomes
- Primary lysosomes are formed in the ER and Golgi's membrane, and are precursors to secondary lysosomes.
- Secondary lysosomes result from fusion with endosomes or autophagosomes.
- Heterolysosomes (endosomes) come from primary lysosomes and vesicles formed by endocytosis.
- Phagosomes are from phagocytosis - digesting larger items.
- Pinosomes are from pinocytosis - digesting smaller items.
- Autolysosomes are those that form from cellular materials that need to be recycled or broken down
Peroxisomes
- Peroxisomes are oval or spherical organelles with a single membrane. They range from 0.2 to 1.8 µm in diameter and are abundant in the liver, kidneys, and nervous tissue.
- Their internal granular matrix can have a crystalline core (nucleoid), which varies between tissue types.
Peroxisome Functions
- Peroxisomes are implicated in more than 60 catabolic and anabolic processes.
- They decompose harmful chemicals, like breaking down hydrogen peroxide; as well as oxidizing long-chain fatty acids, and branching fatty acids to create linear molecules.
- They play a crucial role in alcohol metabolism, including cholesterol, bile acid, plasmalogen synthesis, etc.
Peroxisome Formation
- Peroxisomes can form de novo from vesicles originating from mitochondria or the ER, or from preexisting peroxisomes (via division).
Centrioles
- Centrosomes (also called diplosomes), which are found near the nucleus and Golgi, are composed of microtubules arranged in the form of cylinders.
- Centrosomes duplicate themselves during cell division, their duplicated parts/components moving to opposite cell poles.
Plant Cells
- Compared to animal cells, plant cells have additional components like plastids (living components), cell walls, and vacuoles (which are non-living).
Plastids
- Plastids are oval organelles surrounded by a double membrane with plastid DNA and ribosomes.
- They arise from proplastids, which differentiate into various types, including chloroplasts (photosynthesis), chromoplasts (color), amyloplasts (starch storage), and elaioplasts (lipid storage).
Chloroplast Structure
- Chloroplasts have two membranes: an inner membrane and an outer membrane.
-
There are thylakoids and grana stacks within the chloroplast. - The internal structure of chloroplasts are labelled, showing the stromas and lamellae.
Cell Wall
- Plant cells have cell walls made of cellulose or chitin.
- Cell walls are multi-layered.
- The primary cell wall is formed during cell growth; the secondary cell wall (produced after growth is complete) is made of cellulose, lignin.
Plant Vacuoles
- A plant vacuole has a membrane (tonoplast) that encloses cell sap.
- Cell sap primarily consists of water (~90%), ions, proteins (aleurone grains) and carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, fructose, sucrose).
- Organic acids can also be present.
Vacuole Functions
- Vacuoles maintain cell firmness (turgor pressure).
- They act as storage for reserves.
- They accumulate unnecessary metabolic products (wastes).
Comparison (Plant vs. Animal Cells)
- Organelle types and relative abundance between plant and animal cells are summarized in comparison diagrams.
Endosymbiotic Theory
- Endosymbiotic theory explains mitochondrial and chloroplast origins from prokaryotic cells.
- Evidence includes similar circular DNA structures and ribosomes, and that they replicate through division rather than de novo synthesis by the host cell.
Cell Metabolism
Metabolism involves all chemical reactions inside living organisms. It includes matter, energy, and information exchange, to manage stimuli, growth, movement, reproduction, etc.
- Metabolism can be divided into anabolism (synthesis from simpler to more complex) and catabolism (decomposition from more complex to simpler).
Directions of Cell Metabolism
- A diagram depicts pathways that describe energy exchange from and to cells through catabolism and anabolism.
Anabolism
- Anabolism synthesizes complex compounds from simpler ones, and it requires energy input; the products contain more energy than the starting substrates.
Catabolism
- Catabolism breaks down complex compounds into simpler ones. The byproducts, contain less energy than the beginning compounds. The released energy is stored in the bonds (e.g. ATP) of energy carrying molecules.
Cellular Respiration
- A diagram shows the relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration, also depicting the overall energy transfer mechanisms.
- Cellular respiration is the process that breaks down organic molecules, such as sugars, for energy, producing carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) in the process.
- In the cytoplasm, glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvic acid.
- In the mitochondria, pyruvic acid and intermediate compounds are oxidized to end products, which mainly include water and carbon dioxide.
Intracellular Respiration (Summary)
- Cellular Respiration involves three key stages: glycolysis (cytoplasm), Krebs cycle (mitochondria matrix), and electron transport (mitochondria).
References
- Alberts, B., Bray, D., Hopkin, K., et al. Fundamentals of Cell Biology (Volumes 1 and 2).
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Description
Test your knowledge on the essential components and characteristics of cells with this quiz. Topics include nucleolar organizers, ribosome structure, and the role of water in cell function. Challenge yourself with matching elements to their functions and understanding macro and trace elements.
