Biology Chapter: Metabolism and Nutrition

Vitamins and minerals obtained only from diet.

Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, needed in larger quantities.

Macronutrients composed of monosaccharides.

Simple sugars, the building blocks of carbohydrates.

Macronutrients composed of glycerol and fatty acids.

Macronutrients composed of amino acids, crucial for body structure.

Building blocks of proteins.

Breakdown of glucose into 2 pyruvates.

Pyruvate converted to Acetyl CoA, further energy production.

Carbon dioxide and water.

Fatty acid breakdown in mitochondria to generate Acetyl CoA.

Too much acid or too little bicarbonate in the blood.

Too little acid or too much bicarbonate in the blood.

Glucagon signals liver to release glucose (glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis).

Insulin helps cells absorb glucose, lowering blood sugar.

Lactic acid.

Urea, filtered by kidneys.

Fatty substance, crucial for cell and hormone production, but excessive levels can lead to health issues.

Low-density lipoprotein (bad) cholesterol that carries cholesterol to cells.

High-density lipoprotein (good) cholesterol that removes cholesterol from cells.

Period after a meal (approx 4 hours) where insulin is predominant.

Period after a meal (6-12 hours) where glucagon is predominant.

Pancreatic hormone that lowers blood sugar.

Pancreatic hormone that raises blood sugar.

Thyroid hormone regulating metabolism, growth, and energy production.

Breakdown of complex molecules into smaller units.

Essential nutrients required in small amounts that the body cannot produce on its own. These are vital for various bodily functions and are obtained solely from your diet.

Nutrients that are needed in large amounts for energy and building blocks for the body. They include carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

The breakdown of glucose (sugar) into pyruvate, a process that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells.

A series of chemical reactions that occur in the mitochondria, where pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA and used to further produce energy.

Carbon dioxide and water

The process of breaking down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA in the mitochondria.

A condition where the blood becomes too acidic (too much acid or too little bicarbonate).

A condition where the blood becomes too basic (too little acid or too much bicarbonate).

The body responds by secreting more hydrogen ions (H+) and reabsorbing bicarbonate ions to bring the pH back to normal.

The body responds by secreting bicarbonate ions and reabsorbing hydrogen ions to bring the pH back to normal.

A hormone produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas that increases blood glucose levels. It signals the liver to release stored glucose and to produce new glucose.

A hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreas that decreases blood glucose levels. It helps cells absorb glucose for energy or storage.

Lactic acid is a byproduct of glucose metabolism.

Urea is the main byproduct of amino acid metabolism, and it is filtered through the kidneys and excreted in urine.

A waxy substance found in your body that is essential for building cells and making hormones. However, high levels can increase the risk of heart disease.

LDL (low-density lipoprotein) is often called 'bad' cholesterol because it carries cholesterol to cells. HDL (high-density lipoprotein) is often called 'good' cholesterol because it removes excess cholesterol. VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein) is a type of lipid that carries triglycerides.

The period after eating, usually lasting about 4 hours, where the body is actively digesting and absorbing nutrients from food. Insulin is the predominant hormone during this state.

The period after the absorptive state, usually lasting 6-12 hours, where the body is using stored energy as it prepares for the next meal. Glucagon is the predominant hormone during this state.

Thyroxine (T3 and T4) is produced by the thyroid gland.

The process of breaking down complex molecules into smaller units, often releasing energy in the process.

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body, including both catabolism and anabolism.

The amount of energy your body uses to maintain basic functions while at rest.

The total amount of energy your body uses in a given period of time, usually a day.

BMR represents the energy needed for basic functions at rest, whereas metabolic rate accounts for energy expenditure during activity.

The heat loss through evaporation from the skin, lungs, and oral mucosa that you don't consciously perceive.

The process of producing sperm cells in the testes, starting with germ cells and ending with mature sperm.

The final stage of spermatogenesis where the immature sperm cells (spermatids) transform into mature, motile sperm.

The process of egg cell production in the ovaries, starting with a germ cell and ending with a mature egg cell.

A hormone produced by the ovaries that plays a crucial role in preparing the body for pregnancy and regulating the menstrual cycle.

A hormone produced by the ovaries that regulates the menstrual cycle, promotes female sexual characteristics, and is essential for pregnancy and bone health.

A hormone primarily produced by the testes that influences male sexual characteristics, libido, and sperm production.

A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries and, in males, stimulates spermatogenesis.

A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that triggers ovulation in women and stimulates testosterone production in men.

The attachment of a fertilized egg to the lining of the uterus (endometrium), where it will develop during pregnancy.

Meiosis II is not completed until fertilization.

The first phase of the menstrual cycle, where follicles in the ovaries grow and produce estrogen. It typically lasts from days 1-14.

The release of a mature egg from the ovary into the fallopian tube. It is triggered by a surge in LH.

The phase after ovulation, where the empty follicle transforms into the corpus luteum and secretes progesterone and estrogen. It always lasts 14 days.

The earliest stage of follicle development. These follicles contain a primary oocyte and are present at birth.

The next stage of follicle development, where the oocyte enlarges and FSH starts to act on the follicle.

The next stage of follicle development, where the follicle continues to grow and cells start producing androgens, which are converted into estrogen. Follicular fluid also begins to accumulate.

The next stage of follicle development, where a fluid-filled cavity called the antrum develops, and estrogen production increases.

The final stage of follicle development, where the antrum enlarges and the follicle is ready for ovulation. The oocyte completes meiosis I and starts meiosis II.

Spermiogenesis produces mature sperm containing a head, acrosome, midpiece, and tail.

Spermatogonia can continuously produce sperm, resulting in four sperm per primary spermatocyte. Oogonia are limited in number and produce one egg per primary oocyte, with the rest becoming polar bodies.

LH surge triggers ovulation. FSH surge stimulates follicle growth. Estrogen surge signals the pituitary to release LH surge. Progesterone surge maintains the uterine lining.

A haploid cell formed during oogenesis. It is released during ovulation and capable of being fertilized. Meiosis II is only completed upon fertilization.

Changes in the endometrium (uterine lining) in response to hormone fluctuations during the menstrual cycle.