Anatomy Final PDF

1. Micronutrients a. Vitmains and minerals b. Only get from diet 2. Macronutrients a. Carbs i. monosaccharides b. Lipids i. glycerol/fatty acids c. Proteins i. Amino acids 3. Glycolysis a. Glucose brok...

1. Micronutrients a. Vitmains and minerals b. Only get from diet 2. Macronutrients a. Carbs i. monosaccharides b. Lipids i. glycerol/fatty acids c. Proteins i. Amino acids 3. Glycolysis a. Glucose broken down into 2 pyruvate 4. Citirc Acid Cycle a. Each pyrvate is converted into 1 Acetyl CoA 5. Waste products of cellular respiration a. Co2 H2O 6. Beta-oxidation of fatty acids is when fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to generate acetyl-CoA, which then enters the citric acid cycle for further energy production. 7. Metabolic Acidosis a. Too much acid or too little bicarbonate in the blood. b. Secrete H+, reabsorb Bicarb c. HYPERventilation 8. Metabolic Alkalosis a. Too little acid or too much bicarbonate in the blood b. Secrete Bicarb, reabsorb H+ c. HYPOventilation 9. Low Blood Sugar a. Glucagon signals liver to release stored glucose (glycogenolysis) and make new glucose (gluconeogenesis) 10. High Blood Sugar a. Insulin helps cells absorb glucose for energy or storage, lowering blood sugar levels 11. Byproducts of glucose metabolism a. Lactic acid 12. Byproduct of amino acid metabolism a. Urea b. Filters through Kidneys c. In the form of urea in urine 13. Cholesterol a. Cholesterol is a fatty substance in your body that helps build cells and make hormones, but too much of it can cause health problems like heart disease. b. Steroid hormone, bile salts, and Vitamin D are produced from it c. Produced in liver  d. LDL (Bad) i. Less lipid ii. Deliver cholesterol TO CELLS e. HDL (Good) i. Least amount of lipid ii. Uptakes lipids f. VLDL i. Most lipid ii. Release triglycerides g. Total Cholesterol i. blood test that measures the total amount of cholesterol in your blood 1. Measures HDL and LDL 14. Absorptive/ Fed State a. 4 hours b. Insulin is predominant hormone c. Hyperglycemic State d. Insulin and glycogen involved i. Storing what body is not using = glycogenesis 15. Post Absorptive State a. 6-12 hours b. Glucagon is predominant hormone c. Hypoglycemic State 16. Insulin a. Produced by pancreas i. Beta Cells b. Lowers blood sugar 17. Glucagon a. Produced by Pancreas i. Alpha Cells b. Raises Blood Sugar 18. Thyroxine a. Produced by thyroid i. T3 and T4 b. regulate your body's metabolism, energy production, and growth. 19. Catabolism a. breaking down complex molecules into smaller units 20. Metabolism a. sum of all chemical reactions that occur in a cell i. Catabolism+anabolism 21. Basal metabolic Rate a. the amount of energy your body uses to maintain basic functions while at rest 22. Metabolic Rate a. the amount of energy an organism uses in a given period of time, usually a day 23. Basal Metabolic Rate vs. Metabolic rate a. Basal metabolic rate is the amount of calories your body needs to perform basic functions while at rest, while metabolic rate is the total amount of energy your body expends in a given time period 24. Insensible heat loss a. the process of heat loss from the body that occurs through evaporation from the skin, lungs, and oral mucosa, and is not consciously perceived 25. Spermatogenesis vs. Spermogenisis a. Spermatogenesis: the entire process of sperm production, including the initial division and formation of haploid cells i. 4 sperm cells produced ii. Haploid b. Spermogenesis: the final stage of spermatogenesis where the immature sperm cells (spermatids) undergo changes to become mature, motile sperm. i. 4 sperm produced ii. Haploid 26. Oogenesis a. process by which eggs (ova) are produced in females i. maturation of an oogonium ii. 1 egg produced iii. Haploid 27. Progesterone a. prepares the body for pregnancy and regulates the menstrual cycle 28. Estrogen a. regulates the menstrual cycle, promotes female sexual characteristics, and is crucial for pregnancy and bone health. 29. Testosterone a. influences male sexual characteristics, libido, and sperm production b. When intital concentration of blood is high= puberty c. Testosterone can slightly increase basal body temperature due to its effect on metabolism. d. It promotes muscle growth, strength, and recovery by stimulating protein synthesis and muscle fiber development. 30. FSH a. helps your ovaries prepare eggs for ovulation b. stimulates the follicles to make estrogen, which helps get your body ready for pregnancy c. Males= Stimulates spermatogenesis 31. LH a. Testes= Testosterone production b. Ovaries= Egg release (ovulation) + Progesterone production 32. Once an egg is fertilized in the fallopian tube, it travels to the uterus to implant itself into the uterine lining (endometrium). This process, called implantation,  allows the fertilized egg to embed, where it can grow and develop into a fetus during pregnancy. 33. In oogenesis Meosis ll is not complete until fertilization occurs 34. Most oocytes will never reach Meosis ll 35. Phases of the ovarian cycle a. Follicular phase i. Length varies ~ days 1-14 ii. FSH stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles iii. The maturing follicles secrete estrogen, which helps the uterine lining (endometrium) thicken in preparation for a possible pregnancy iv. FSH and Estrogen Involved b. Ovulation i. Around day 14 ii. A surge in LH triggers the dominant follicle to release a mature egg into the fallopian tube iii. The egg is now ready for fertilization by sperm iv. LH and Estrogen involved c. Luteal Phase i. Always consistent: 14 days to the end of cycle ii. The empty follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and some estrogen iii. Progesterone maintains the thickened uterine lining for implantation. iv. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks down, progesterone levels drop, and menstruation begins. v. Progesterone and Estrogen Involved 36. Stages of follicular development a. Primordial Follicle i. Contains primary oocyte ii. Present at birth and remain dormant until recruited during the ovarian cycle iii. These follicles are paused in prophase I of meiosis b. Primary Follicle i. Oocytes enlarge ii. FSH begins to act on the follicle c. Secondary Follicle i. Follicle grows ii. cells start producing androgens, which granulosa cells convert into estrogen. iii. Follicular fluid begins to accumulate d. Tertiary Follice i. The follicle develops a fluid-filled cavity called the antrum ii. Estrogen production increases significantly as the follicle matures e. Mature Follicle i. The antrum enlarges, and the follicle reaches its maximum size  ii. The oocyte completes Meiosis I and starts Meiosis II, pausing at metaphase II until fertilization. iii. Follicle is now ready for ovulation f. Ovulation i. The mature follicle ruptures, releasing the secondary oocyte into the fallopian tube. ii. Triggered by a surge in LH. 37. Picture of Ovary: Name Stages 38. Spermatogenesis through Spermiogenesis a. Spermatogenesis – This is the overall process that occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, where spermatogonia (stem cells) undergo meiosis to become spermatids. b. The transformation of spermatids into mature spermatozoa. This involves the development of a tail, condensation of the nucleus, and other changes. Spermiogenesis  c. Sperm remain in the epidiymis for about 2 weeks days for final maturation d. Haploid (Diploid until meiosis ll starts) 39. The testes are located outside the body to maintain a temperature that's cooler than the body's core temperature, which is necessary for sperm production 40. End result of Spermiogenesis a. Formation of mature sperm i. Head (Haploid) ii. Acrosome (forms over the head. It contains enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the egg during fertilization.) iii. Midpiece (provide energy for the sperm’s movement) iv. Tail (allows motility) b. four spermatozoa from each primary spermatocyte c. Sperm are stored in epididymis until ejaculation 41. Spermatogonia vs. Oogonia a. both germ cells that undergo meiosis to produce haploid gametes b. Spermatogonia undergo continuous production of sperm throughout a male's life, producing four sperm from each primary spermatocyte. c. Oogonia are limited in number and produce one egg from each primary oocyte, with the rest becoming polar bodies that degenerate. d. Spermatogonia undergo meiosis to produce four sperm per primary spermatocyte. e. Oogonia undergoes meiosis to produce one egg per primary oocyte, with meiosis II completed only after fertilization. 42. Where do we see hormone surges? a. LH Surge i. The pituitary gland releases LH into the bloodstream. ii. Triggers Ovulation  1. Estrogen levels increase as the dominant follicle matures, and this high level of estrogen stimulates the anterior pituitary to release a large amount of LH. 2. The LH surge causes the dominant follicle to rupture and release a mature egg from the ovary into the fallopian tube. b. FSH Surge i. The pituitary gland releases FSH into the bloodstream. 1. FSH is crucial for the growth and development of the ovarian follicles in the follicular phase. It stimulates the granulosa cells of the follicles to produce estrogen. 2. While the FSH surge doesn't directly trigger ovulation, it helps in the maturation of the follicle that will eventually ovulate. c. Estrogen Surge i. The developing follicles produce estrogen. 1. As the follicle matures, it secretes estrogen, which gradually increases throughout the follicular phase. 2. High levels of estrogen signal the pituitary to release the LH surge, which leads to ovulation. 3. Estrogen also helps in the thickening of the endometrium preparing it for potential implantation of a fertilized egg. d. Progesterone Surge i. After ovulation, the corpus luteum produces progesterone. 1. After ovulation, the LH surge promotes the formation of the corpus luteum 2. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which is essential for maintaining the thickened uterine lining and preparing it for possible pregnancy. 3. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, causing progesterone levels to drop and triggering menstruation. 43. Secondary oocyte a. Haploid b. Formed in oogenesis c. Mature oocyte that is released during ovulation and is capable of being fertilized d. It completes meiosis only if fertilization occurs. e. The secondary oocyte is surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells, forming the corona radiata, which aids in fertilization. 44. Endometrial Cycle a. changes that occur in the endometrium in response to fluctuating hormone levels during the menstrual cycle. i. Menstural Cycle (1-5) 1. Low levels of estrogen and progesterone 2. The endometrial lining is no longer supported by hormones and breaks down. This results in the shedding of the functional layer of the endometrium, leading to menstruation  ii. Proliferative Phase (6-14) 1. Rising levels of estrogen produced by the growing follicles in the ovary 2. The endometrial lining begins to regrow and thicken in response to estrogen. This prepares the uterus for potential implantation of a fertilized egg. 3. The endometrium becomes more glandular and vascular, and the functional layer thickens. iii. Secretory Phase (15-28) 1. After ovulation, the corpus luteum in the ovary secretes progesterone, which further supports the thickening of the endometrial lining. Estrogen also remains high. 2. The endometrium becomes more secretory. The glands in the endometrium secrete nutrient-rich substances that would nourish a fertilized egg if implantation occurs. The blood vessels become more prominent to support a potential pregnancy. 3. the endometrial lining becomes thicker, more glandular, and more vascular. iv. Ischemic Phase (no pregnancy) 1. If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, leading to a drop in progesterone and estrogen levels. 2. The endometrial lining is no longer supported and begins to break down. 3. The functional layer of the endometrium starts to break down, initiating the menstrual phase again, and the cycle begins. 45. The ovarian cycle focuses on the development and release of the egg, while the endometrial cycle focuses on preparing the uterus for potential pregnancy. a. Both cycles are regulated by the changing levels of estrogen and progesterone *EXTRA CREDIT* 1. Tachycardia a. Abnormally fast heart rate 2. Bradycardia a. Abnormally slow Heart rate i. Issue with SA node 3. Ventricular Fibrilation a. A disorganized and rapid electrical activity in the ventricles that leads to ineffective pumping of blood 4. Heart sounds a. The lub (S1) and dub (S2) sounds are created by the closing of the heart valves. b. S1 is caused by the closure of the atrioventricular (AV) valves c. S2 is caused by the closure of the semilunar valves 5. P wave a. Atrial depolarization (contraction) 6. QRS Complex a. Ventricular Depolarization (Contraction) 7. T wave a. Ventricular Repolarizationn (Relaxation) 8. SA Node not working a. Absent P wave 9. AV node not working a. Absent PR Interval 10. Bodys response to respiratory Acidosis a. Hyperventilation to expel more CO2 and raise blood pH. 11. Bodys response to Metabolic acidosis a. Kidneys compensate by excreting more H+ ions and retaining bicarbonate 12. Afferent Arteriole a. Carries blood into the glomerulus for filtration. 13. Efferent Arteriole a. Carries blood away from the glomerulus after filtration 14. Glomerular Capsule a. Surrounds the glomerulus and collects the filtrate 15. ADH Effect on blood and urine volume a. Released when the body is dehydrated. It causes the kidneys to retain water, concentrating urine and increasing blood volume. b. When ADH is absent, the kidneys produce large volumes of dilute urine and the blood volume decreases. 16. Glucagon a. Released by alpha cells of the pancreas when blood glucose is low. It promotes the release of glucose from the liver to raise blood glucose levels. 17. Insulin a. Released by beta cells of the pancreas when blood glucose is high. It promotes glucose uptake by cells for energy and storage, lowering blood glucose levels. 18. Pleural layers Superficial to deep a. Parietal pleura (outer layer lining the chest wall) b. Pleural cavity (space between the layers filled with pleural fluid) c. Visceral pleura (inner layer covering the lungs) 19. Positive Feedback a. A process where the outcome of a system amplifies the initial stimulus. i. Example: Childbirth (contractions stimulate more oxytocin release, leading to stronger contractions). 20. Negative Feedback a. A process that reduces or reverses the stimulus to maintain balance. i. Example: Blood clotting (once a clot is formed, it inhibits further clot formation to prevent excessive clotting).