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Questions and Answers
Which component is likely represented by 'A' in biological systems?
Which component is likely represented by 'A' in biological systems?
- Glial cell
- Synapse
- Vascular structure
- Neuron (correct)
What could the label 'NT' indicate in the context of neuronal communication?
What could the label 'NT' indicate in the context of neuronal communication?
- Nerve Termination
- Nuclear Transport
- Neural Transduction
- Neurotransmitter (correct)
In the context of nervous system classifications, what does 'PNS' refer to?
In the context of nervous system classifications, what does 'PNS' refer to?
- Post Neural Synapse
- Peripheral Nervous System (correct)
- Primary Neural Structure
- Pulmonary Nervous System
Which letter could represent the concept of synaptic transmission?
Which letter could represent the concept of synaptic transmission?
What might 'G' signify in the context of receptor proteins?
What might 'G' signify in the context of receptor proteins?
If 'H' represents a part of the nervous system, it is likely to signify what?
If 'H' represents a part of the nervous system, it is likely to signify what?
Which label is most likely associated with motor functions?
Which label is most likely associated with motor functions?
What does the repeated mention of 'NT & receptor' likely imply?
What does the repeated mention of 'NT & receptor' likely imply?
Which of the following structures primarily protects the brain and spinal cord from injury?
Which of the following structures primarily protects the brain and spinal cord from injury?
What is the primary function of oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system?
What is the primary function of oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system?
During the depolarization phase of an action potential, which ion primarily enters the neuron?
During the depolarization phase of an action potential, which ion primarily enters the neuron?
Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for balance and coordination?
Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for balance and coordination?
Which of the following distinguishes an excitatory neurotransmitter from an inhibitory neurotransmitter?
Which of the following distinguishes an excitatory neurotransmitter from an inhibitory neurotransmitter?
What are the layers of the meninges in order from the outermost to innermost?
What are the layers of the meninges in order from the outermost to innermost?
Which of the following describes the main function of the Na+-K+ pump?
Which of the following describes the main function of the Na+-K+ pump?
Which of the following terms describes the structural classification of a neuron that has multiple dendrites and one axon?
Which of the following terms describes the structural classification of a neuron that has multiple dendrites and one axon?
What role do ion gradients play in neural communication?
What role do ion gradients play in neural communication?
How does myelination affect action potential propagation?
How does myelination affect action potential propagation?
What is the relationship between stimulus intensity and action potential characteristics?
What is the relationship between stimulus intensity and action potential characteristics?
Which structure contributes to the sense of equilibrium in the inner ear?
Which structure contributes to the sense of equilibrium in the inner ear?
What type of hormones typically utilize a receptor-mediated mechanism of action?
What type of hormones typically utilize a receptor-mediated mechanism of action?
How do disorders like near-sightedness typically occur?
How do disorders like near-sightedness typically occur?
Which of the following best describes the role of photoreceptors in the visual pathway?
Which of the following best describes the role of photoreceptors in the visual pathway?
What is the primary role of the spinal cord in the nervous system?
What is the primary role of the spinal cord in the nervous system?
What defines a negative feedback mechanism in hormonal control systems?
What defines a negative feedback mechanism in hormonal control systems?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the gray matter in the spinal cord?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the gray matter in the spinal cord?
Which type of sensory receptor would be classified as specialized for detecting taste?
Which type of sensory receptor would be classified as specialized for detecting taste?
What adaptation occurs in sensory receptors during prolonged exposure to a stimulus?
What adaptation occurs in sensory receptors during prolonged exposure to a stimulus?
Which cranial nerve is primarily responsible for the sense of smell?
Which cranial nerve is primarily responsible for the sense of smell?
Which of the following best describes the function of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system?
Which of the following best describes the function of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system?
How does negative feedback regulate hormone secretion?
How does negative feedback regulate hormone secretion?
What distinguishes endocrine glands from exocrine glands?
What distinguishes endocrine glands from exocrine glands?
Which of the following correctly identifies the hormones produced by the anterior and posterior pituitary glands?
Which of the following correctly identifies the hormones produced by the anterior and posterior pituitary glands?
What is the role of cortisol in the body's functions?
What is the role of cortisol in the body's functions?
What stimulates hormone release from the adrenal medulla?
What stimulates hormone release from the adrenal medulla?
How does hypoglycemia trigger glucagon release?
How does hypoglycemia trigger glucagon release?
Which statement correctly describes how goiter development occurs?
Which statement correctly describes how goiter development occurs?
Which of the following hormones are produced by the pancreas?
Which of the following hormones are produced by the pancreas?
What is the primary function of thyroid hormones?
What is the primary function of thyroid hormones?
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Study Notes
Chapter 8: Nervous System
- Nervous System
- Function:
- Detects internal and external stimuli
- Processes information
- Generates responses
- Maintains homeostasis (internal environment stability)
- Divisions:
- Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves that connect CNS to the rest of the body
- Neuron:
- Structure:
- Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons
- Cell Body: Contains nucleus and organelles
- Axon: Carries signals away from the cell body
- Terminal Bouton: Releases neurotransmitters at the synapse
- Structure:
- Neuron Types:
- Multipolar: Multiple dendrites, single axon (most common)
- Bipolar: Single dendrite, single axon (found in sensory organs)
- Pseudounipolar: Single process that splits into axon and dendrite (sensory neurons)
- Neuroglia:
- Support and protect neurons
- Oligodendrocytes: Myelinate axons in CNS
- Schwann Cells: Myelinate axons in PNS
- Brain and Spinal Cord Protection:
- Meninges: Three layers of protective membranes
- Pia Mater: Innermost layer, adheres to brain and spinal cord
- Arachnoid Mater: Middle layer, contains cerebrospinal fluid
- Dura Mater: Outermost layer, tough and fibrous
- Meninges: Three layers of protective membranes
- Function:
Chapter 9: Senses
- Sensory Receptors:
- Detect stimuli
- General Senses: Touch, pressure, temperature, pain
- Special Senses: Smell, taste, hearing, vision, equilibrium
- Adaptation: Decreased sensitivity to constant stimuli
- Referred Pain: Pain perceived in a different location from its source
- Taste:
- Structures: Taste buds on tongue
- Receptors: Chemoreceptors that detect chemicals in food
- Smell:
- Receptors: Chemoreceptors in olfactory epithelium (lining of nasal cavity)
- Location: Roof of nasal cavity
- Hearing:
- Structures: Ear (outer, middle, inner)
- Receptors: Mechanoreceptors in the inner ear that detect sound waves
- Equilibrium (Balance):
- Static Equilibrium: Detects head position relative to gravity
- Dynamic Equilibrium: Detects head movement
- Structures:
- Semicircular Canals: Fluid-filled canals in the inner ear, detect head rotation
- Macula: Sensory receptors in the inner ear, detect head position
- Receptors: Mechanoreceptors in the inner ear
- Vision:
- Eye Structures: Cornea, lens, retina
- Photoreceptors: Light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) in the retina
- Visual Pathway: Signals travel from photoreceptors to the brain
- Visual Accommodation: Lens changes shape to focus on objects at different distances
- Nearsightedness: Difficult to see far objects (eyeball too long)
- Farsightednes: Difficult to see near objects (eyeball too short)
- Correction: Lenses to adjust the focal point
Chapter 10: Endocrine
- Modes of Communication:
- Nervous System: Electrical signals (neurotransmitters)
- Endocrine System: Chemical signals (hormones)
- Exocrine Glands: Secrete substances outside the body (sweat glands)
- Paracrine: Chemical signals that act on neighboring cells
- Hormones:
- Steroid Hormones: Fat-soluble, pass through cell membranes
- Nonsteroid Hormones: Water-soluble, bind to receptors on cell surface
- Hormonal Control:
- Negative Feedback: Hormone production is regulated by its own levels
- Positive Feedback: Hormone production is stimulated by its own levels
- Hypothalamus and Pituitary:
- Hypothalamus: Controls the pituitary gland
- Pituitary Gland:
- Anterior Pituitary: Secretes hormones under hypothalamic control
- Posterior Pituitary: Stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus
- Thyroid Gland:
- Secretes thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
- Controlled by the anterior pituitary
- Hyperthyroidism: Excess thyroid hormone
- Hypothyroidism: Deficiency of thyroid hormone
- Goiter: Enlarged thyroid gland
- Adrenal Glands:
- Adrenal Medulla: Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine (stress response)
- Adrenal Cortex: Secretes cortisol (stress response)
- Pancreas:
- Secretes insulin and glucagon (blood glucose regulation)
- Insulin: Lowers blood glucose
- Glucagon: Raises blood glucose
- Secretes insulin and glucagon (blood glucose regulation)
- Diabetes:
- Type 1: Inability to produce insulin
- Type 2: Insulin resistance
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