Campbell Bio Ch 2+3

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Questions and Answers

Match the following elements with their primary roles in living organisms:

Oxygen = Makes up 96% of living matter Calcium = Essential for bone structure Nitrogen = Key component of amino acids Potassium = Regulates fluid balance

Match the following types of substances with their definitions:

Element = A substance that can't be broken down Compound = A substance made of two or more different atoms Trace Element = An element present in small quantities Toxic Element = An element that can be harmful to living organisms

Match the following biological needs with the corresponding life forms:

Humans = Need 25 elements to sustain life Plants = Need 17 elements to sustain life Animals = Evolved tolerance to toxic elements All living organisms = Require 20-25% of elements from the periodic table

Match the following groups of elements with their percentage contribution to living matter:

<p>Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen = 96% of living matter Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulfur = Remaining 4% of living matter Hydrogen = Part of most organic compounds Carbon = The backbone of organic molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following statements with their correct concepts:

<p>Living organisms = Contain a mix of essential elements Trace elements = Vital in small amounts for certain functions Compounds = Formed by bonding of different elements Periodic table = Contains 92 elements important for life</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following elements with their group in living matter:

<p>Oxygen = 96% of living matter Nitrogen = 96% of living matter Calcium = 4% of living matter Sulfur = 4% of living matter</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following subatomic particles with their charges:

<p>Protons = Positive charge Electrons = Circulate around the nucleus Neutrons = No charge</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their definitions:

<p>Atomic Number = Number of protons in an atom Mass Number = Total number of protons and neutrons Atomic Mass = Mass of an atom, often a decimal Isotopes = Atoms with differing numbers of neutrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their definitions:

<p>Proton = Positively charged subatomic particle Neutron = Subatomic particle with no charge Electron = Negatively charged subatomic particle Atomic Number = Number of protons in an atom</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their descriptions:

<p>Half-life = Time it takes for half of a radioactive isotope to decay Isotopes = Atoms with the same number of protons but different neutrons Radioactive Isotope = Unstable isotope that decays and releases energy Atomic Mass = Average mass of an atom, including isotopes</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of isotopes with their characteristics:

<p>Stable Isotope = Does not decay Radioactive Isotope = Nucleus decays, emits energy Mother Isotope = Original radioactive element Daughter Isotope = New element from decay process</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following scientific measurements with their descriptions:

<p>Half-life = Time for half of a substance to decay Dalton = Unit of measurement for atomic particles Atomic Mass = Average mass accounting for isotopes Radioactive Tracers = Used to track biological processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following shells with their electron capacity:

<p>First shell = Can hold 2 electrons Second shell = Can hold 8 electrons Valence shell = Outermost electron shell Orbital = Area where an electron is found 90% of the time</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following particles with their location:

<p>Protons = Inside the atomic nucleus Neutrons = Inside the atomic nucleus Electrons = Circulate around the nucleus Nucleus = Contains protons and neutrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of isotopes with their characteristics:

<p>Mother Isotope = Original radioactive isotope before decay Daughter Isotope = Element formed after decay of mother isotope Stable Isotope = Does not undergo radioactive decay Unstable Isotope = Undergoes decay and changes into a different element</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following forms of electron shells with their orbital shapes:

<p>First shell = 1 spherical orbital Second shell = 1 spherical and 3 dumbbell orbitals Third shell = Multiple orbitals including s and p Valence shell = Contains the outermost electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of elements with their definition:

<p>Trace Elements = Present in small quantities Toxic Elements = Natural elements that may be harmful Primary Elements = Make up the majority of living matter Secondary Elements = Contribute to the rest of living matter</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their descriptions:

<p>Decay Process = Involves neutron converting to a proton Energy Release = Occurs during radioactive decay Stable vs Unstable Isotopes = Impact on element properties Tracking Metabolism = Use of radioactive tracers</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following statements with their implications:

<p>Electrons further from nucleus = Higher potential energy Full valence shell = Element is mostly unresponsive to reactions Unpaired electrons = Increase reactivity of an atom Chemical behavior = Dependent on electron distribution</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their occurrence in atoms:

<p>Isotopes = Same element, different neutrons Electrons = Form area of negative charge Atomic composition = Includes protons and neutrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match these processes with their outcomes:

<p>Neutron decay = Changes neutron to proton and alters element Energy release from electron = Usually emitted as light or radiation Atom's nucleus stability = Depends on number of protons and neutrons Chemical reactions = Involve electron interactions rather than nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of energy with their characteristics:

<p>Potential Energy = Stored energy due to position Kinetic Energy = Energy of motion Thermal Energy = Energy related to temperature Radiant Energy = Energy carried by light</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following applications of radioactive isotopes with their use:

<p>PET scan = Tracks metabolism through radioactive tracers Radiometric dating = Determines age of rocks and fossils Radioactive tracers = Used to track biochemical processes Medical imaging = Uses radioactive materials to visualize internal structures</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of chemical bonds with their characteristics:

<p>Nonpolar Covalent Bond = Atoms have the same level of electronegativity Polar Covalent Bond = Atoms have different electronegativities Ionic Bond = Results from the transfer of electrons Hydrogen Bond = Attraction between hydrogen and an electronegative atom</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms related to atomic structure:

<p>Electron Shell = An energy level where electrons reside Valence Shell = The outermost electron shell of an atom Orbital = A region where an electron is likely found Half-life = Time taken for half of a radioactive sample to decay</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following pairs of chemical structures:

<p>Lewis Dot Structure = Representation of electrons as dots around elements Structural Formula = Representation of bonds using lines between atoms Double Bond = Bond involving the sharing of two pairs of electrons Ion = An atom with a net electric charge due to loss or gain of electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following elemental properties:

<p>Cation = Positively charged ion Anion = Negatively charged ion Salt = Compound formed from ionic bonds Crystals = Natural form of ionic compounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following statements about chemical reactions:

<p>Weak Chemical Reactions = Easily reversible interactions between atoms Energy = Capacity to cause change or do work Chemical Bonds = Interactions that hold atoms together Reactivity = Dependent on unpaired electrons in orbitals</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms related to electron configuration:

<p>Valence Electrons = Electrons in the outermost shell Electrons = Negatively charged particles around the nucleus Orbital Types = Regions where electrons are likely to be found Spherical Orbital = Found in the first electron shell</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following chemical concepts with their explanations:

<p>Hybridization = Mixing of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals Stability in Salts = More stable dry and can dissolve in water Hydrogen Bonding = Involves hydrogen with an electronegative atom Electrons in Shells = Can only exist on defined energy levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following characteristics of atoms:

<p>Incomplete Electron Shell = Causes atoms to interact and form bonds Full Valence Shell = Atoms are mostly unresponsive in reactions Atomic Orbitals = Regions where electrons drift around the nucleus Energy Levels = Determine the structure of electron shells</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following bonding concepts:

<p>Ionic Compounds = Formed through ionic bonds and not covalent bonds Crystal Form = Natural state of ionic compounds like salts Dry Ionic Bonds = Stronger when not shielded by solvents Dissolved in Water = Ionic bonds become weaker</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following bonding types with examples:

<p>Covalent Bond Example = H2 molecule formed by sharing electrons Ionic Bond Example = NaCl formed through electron transfer Nonpolar Covalent Example = O2 bonded by equal electronegativity Polar Covalent Example = Water molecule with unequal electron sharing</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following chemical attributes:

<p>Atomic Number = Number of protons in the nucleus Mass Number = Total number of protons and neutrons Isotope = Variations of an element with different neutrons Radioactive Decay = Process of an unstable nucleus losing energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their respective charges:

<p>𝛅+ = Indicates a partial positive charge 𝛅- = Indicates a partial negative charge Cation charge = Positive charge due to electron loss Anion charge = Negative charge due to electron gain</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following chemical bond types with their descriptions:

<p>Covalent Bond = Sharing of electron pairs between atoms Ionic Bond = Attraction between oppositely charged ions Polar Covalent Bond = Unequal sharing of electrons between atoms Nonpolar Covalent Bond = Equal sharing of electrons between identical atoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of bonds with their features:

<p>Hydrogen Bond = Attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom Van der Waals Interactions = Weak forces between nonpolar molecules causing adhesion Double Bond = Sharing of two pairs of electrons between two atoms Ionic Compound = Formed from ionic bonds and usually crystallized</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following molecular shapes with their bonding characteristics:

<p>Tetrahedral = Four hybrid orbitals arranged in a pyramid shape Linear = Atoms arranged in a straight line Trigonal Planar = Three atoms bonded to one central atom in a flat plane Bent = Molecular shape with two atoms and one lone pair</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of chemical interactions with their examples:

<p>Ionic Bond = NaCl Hydrogen Bond = Water molecules Covalent Bond = H2 Van der Waals Interaction = Gecko's ability to climb surfaces</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following statements about compounds with their appropriate terms:

<p>Salts = Compounds formed from ionic bonds Molecules = Formed by covalent bonds Ionic Compounds = Do not consist of covalent bonds Weak Chemical Reactions = Easily reversible interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their characteristics:

<p>Anion = Negatively charged ion Molecular Shape = Influences how a molecule interacts with others Lewis Dot Structure = Represents electrons as dots around symbols Structural Formula = Uses lines to represent bonds between atoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of covalent bonds with their examples:

<p>Double Bond = O2 (Oxygen gas) Single Bond = Hydrogen molecule (H2) Triple Bond = Nitrogen gas (N2) Polar Covalent Bond = Water (H2O)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their applications:

<p>Electronegativity = Determines bond polarity Covalent Bonds = Join nonmetals in molecules Ionic Bonds = Form between metals and nonmetals Hybrid Orbitals = Shape and arrangement of molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following chemical properties with their corresponding bonds:

<p>Ionic Bond = Strength increases when dry Covalent Bond = Shares electrons to fill shells Hydrogen Bond = Forms between hydrogen and electronegative atoms Van der Waals Forces = Temporary dipoles in nonpolar molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following drug interactions with their structural similarities:

<p>Morphine = Resembles natural endorphins in the brain Heroin = Analog to natural pain-relieving substances Opiate Drugs = Interact with neurotransmitter systems Endorphins = Produced naturally by the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the states of water with their properties:

<p>Liquid Water = Constantly forming and breaking bonds Ice = Less dense due to structured hydrogen bonds Water Vapor = Molecules move freely with high energy Supercooled Water = Liquid below freezing point without freezing</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following energy concepts with their definitions:

<p>Kinetic Energy = Energy from the movement of molecules Temperature = Average kinetic energy of a body of matter Heat = Transfer of thermal energy between bodies Calorie = Energy to raise temperature of water by one degree Celsius</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of bonds with their characteristics:

<p>Polar Covalent Bonds = Unequal sharing of electrons Hydrogen Bonds = Weak attraction between polar molecules Ionic Bonds = Transfer of electrons from one atom to another Covalent Bonds = Sharing of electron pairs between atoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their examples:

<p>Cohesion = Water beads on a surface Adhesion = Water climbing up plant roots Surface Tension = Insects walking on water Chemical Equilibrium = Ammonia formation and decomposition</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following temperatures with their comparative statements:

<p>Swimming Pool = More thermal energy than a hot mug of coffee Boiling Water = Higher temperature than ice Ice Water = Higher kinetic energy than frozen ice Room Temperature = Lower energy than boiled water</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following properties of water with their implications:

<p>High Specific Heat = Regulates temperature smoothly High Latent Heat = Requires more energy to change states Density Anomaly = Ice floats on water surfaces Polarity = Solvent properties in biological systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following chemical reaction elements with their outcomes:

<p>Reactants = Substances before a reaction Products = Substances formed after a reaction Higher Concentration = Increases chance of collisions Reversible Reaction = Can shift between reactants and products</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms related to water with their correct definitions:

<p>Specific Heat = Heat needed to change temperature by one degree Celsius Heat of Vaporization = Heat needed to convert one gram of liquid to gas Transiency = Creation and destruction of hydrogen bonds Aqueous Solution = Solution where a solute is dissolved in water</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following components of solutions with their roles:

<p>Solvent = Substance that dissolves another substance Solute = Substance that is dissolved Sodium ions = Positively charged ions attracted to water's negative regions Chlorine ions = Negatively charged ions attracted to water's positive regions</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following processes involving water with their descriptions:

<p>Vaporization = Transition from liquid to gas Condensation = Transition from gas to liquid Evaporation = Cooling process as warmer molecules escape Freezing = Transition of liquid water to solid ice</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their related characteristics:

<p>Hydrogen bonds = Created and destroyed easily in water Kinetic energy = Increases with temperature rise Heat absorption in summer = Water cools surrounding air Heat release in winter = Water heats surrounding air</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following scientific terms with their corresponding values:

<p>1 Joule = 0.239 calories 1 calorie = 4.184 Joules 580 calories = Heat needed to evaporate 1 gram of water at 25°C Higher specific heat = Water compared to other substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following aspects of water's behavior with their effects:

<p>Resistance to temperature change = Allows for stable climates High heat capacity = Absorbs heat without drastic temperature rise Insulation by ice = Protects aquatic life in winter Evaporation cooling = Cools bodies of plants and animals</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms related to water molecules with their definitions:

<p>Hydrogen bonds = Weak attractions between water molecules Transiency = Constant formation and breaking of hydrogen bonds Kinetic energy during heating = Increases collisions between molecules Intermolecular attractions = Hold water molecules closely together</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following thermal properties of water with their consequences:

<p>High specific heat = Buffers temperature changes in environments High heat of vaporization = Prevents overheating in organisms Cooling effect of evaporation = Reduces temperature in transpiration Temperature regulation in large bodies = Maintains stable ecosystems</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following scientific concepts with their outcomes:

<p>Heat released during condensation = Lower kinetic energy state Formation of vapor = Increased kinetic energy of molecules Ice floating = Insulates water below Water's hydrogen bonds = Increased heat absorption capacity</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of energy with their descriptions:

<p>Kinetic Energy = Energy from motion of molecules Thermal Energy = Total kinetic energy of a body of matter Heat = Transfer of thermal energy between bodies Temperature = Average kinetic energy of a substance</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following substances with their molecular mass:

<p>Hydrogen = 1 g/mol Carbon = 12 g/mol Sucrose = 342 g/mol Substance B = 10 g/mol</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with examples:

<p>Hydrophilic = Cellulose in cotton towels Hydrophobic = Cooking oil Molar Solution = One mole of substance dissolved in water Calorie = Energy to raise temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of solutions with their descriptions:

<p>One Molar Solution = One mole of solute in one liter Dilute Solution = Low concentration of solute Concentrated Solution = High concentration of solute Isotonic Solution = Equal concentration inside and outside a cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the molecular properties with their characteristics:

<p>Molecular Mass = Sum of all atomic masses in a molecule Avogadro's Number = 6.02 x 10^23 units per mole Caloric Value = Energy needed to raise temperature of water Molecule Size = Influences solubility in water</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following components of water's behavior with their results:

<p>High Specific Heat = Temperature stabilizes in environments High Surface Tension = Insects walking on water Water as a Solvent = Dissolution of ionic compounds Heat of Vaporization = Effectiveness of sweating for cooling</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of thermodynamic quantities with their definitions:

<p>Calorie = Energy to raise 1 g of water by 1°C Kilocalorie = Energy to raise 1 kg of water by 1°C Thermal Energy = Energy due to temperature and volume Heat Transfer = Movement of thermal energy between substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their descriptions regarding water properties:

<p>Specific Heat = The heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1°C Heat of Vaporization = The heat needed to convert 1 gram of liquid to gas Hydrogen Bonds = Weak attractions between water molecules Evaporative Cooling = Cooling that occurs when the warmest molecules evaporate</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match each concept related to temperature regulation with its explanation:

<p>High Specific Heat = Regulates land temperatures for life Heat Absorption by Water = Helps cool the air during summer Heat Release in Winter = Warms the air from the water body Insulating Ice = Prevents water below from freezing completely</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following processes with their characteristics:

<p>Condensation = Releases heat as water changes from gas to liquid Vaporization = Requires heat to convert liquid to gas Transiency = Creation and breaking of hydrogen bonds Evaporation = Loss of warmest molecules leading to cooling</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match types of heat transfer with their examples:

<p>Conduction = Direct contact transferring heat Convection = Heat transfer through liquid or gas movement Radiation = Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves Evaporation = Cooling via changing from liquid to gas</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following effects of water's properties with their descriptions:

<p>Regulation of Body Temperature = Through sweating and evaporative cooling High Heat of Vaporization = Prevents rapid evaporation from bodies of water Hydrogen Bonding = Allows water to remain liquid over a range of temperatures Density of Ice = Ice floats and insulates water below</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the terms related to water's role in the environment with their implications:

<p>Evaporative Cooling = Helps plants and animals regulate temperatures Aquatic Thermoregulation = Stabilizes temperatures in aquatic environments Hydrogen Bonding = Allows for unique properties of water High Specific Heat = Maintains stable climates</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following scenarios to their respective water properties:

<p>Ice forming on top of water = Less dense than liquid water Water boiling = Requires high heat to change from liquid to gas Plant sweating = Utilizes evaporative cooling Ocean absorbing sunlight = Regulates coastal temperatures</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of heat exchange with examples in nature:

<p>Solar Heat Absorption = Water absorbs heat during the day Heat Release at Night = Water releases heat to the cooler air Evaporative Cooling in Plants = Leaves cool when water evaporates Steam Burns = Heat released during water vapor formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the terms associated with the behavior of water molecules with their functions:

<p>Low Temperature = Increased likelihood of hydrogen bond formation High Kinetic Energy = Increases likelihood of vaporization Molecular attraction = Keeps water molecules close together Bond breaking = Occurs when heat is added, increasing kinetic energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following acids/bases with their characteristics:

<p>Strong Acid = An acid that completely dissociates in solution Weak Acid = An acid that reversibly releases/accepts hydrogen ions Strong Base = A base that significantly decreases hydrogen ion concentration Weak Base = A base that partially accepts hydrogen ions in solution</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following substances with their effects on pH:

<p>Acid = Increases hydrogen ion concentration in water Base = Decreases hydrogen ion concentration in water Carbonic Acid = Acts as a buffer in blood plasma to maintain pH Ammonia = React with hydrogen ions to reduce their concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following molecules with their molecular mass in daltons:

<p>Hydrogen = 1 dalton Carbon = 12 daltons Sucrose = 342 daltons Water = 18 daltons</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following statements with their corresponding chemical concepts:

<p>Equilibrium = A state when hydrogen atoms are dislocated as quickly as reformed pH = A measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution Molar Solution = One mol of solute dissolved in enough water to make one liter Hydration Shell = Water molecules surround dissolved ions or molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following ions with the processes they relate to:

<p>H+ = Contributes to acidity in a solution OH- = Contributes to basicity in a solution H2CO3 = The acid in the carbonic acid-buffer system HCO3- = The bicarbonate that can act to buffer pH changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following examples with their classifications:

<p>Cooking Oil = Hydrophobic substance Sugar = Hydrophilic substance Cellulose = Hydrophilic but not soluble in water Acetic Acid = Weak acid that can dissociate partially</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following chemical reactions with their outcomes:

<p>HCl + H2O = Forms H+ and Cl- ions NH3 + H+ = Forms NH4+ NaOH → Na+ + OH- = Dissociates to produce hydroxide ions H2CO3 ⇄ HCO3- + H+ = Responds to changes in blood pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following components of acid-base chemistry with their definitions:

<p>Acid-Base Reaction = Involves transfer of H+ ions Neutral pH = Equal concentration of H+ and OH- Ocean Acidification = Decrease in ocean pH due to dissolved CO2 Calcification = Process of forming calcium carbonate, affected by carbonate concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following pH values with their acidity levels:

<p>pH 3.0 = 1,000 times more acidic than pH 6.0 pH 7.0 = Neutral level close to blood pH pH 8.0 = Slightly basic, common for biological substances pH 5.0 = Acidic but not as strong as pH 3.0</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following Avogadro's number concepts with their explanations:

<p>1 Mole = Contains $6.02*10^{23}$ molecules 342 g of Sucrose = Contains the same number of molecules as 10 g of Substance B Molecular Mass = Total mass of all atoms in a molecule Dalton = Unit of measurement for atomic mass</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of molecules with their descriptions:

<p>Polar Molecules = Dissolve in water due to hydrogen bonding Nonpolar Molecules = Do not form hydrogen bonds with water Large Compounds = Absorb water even when not dissolving Ions = Form hydration shells when surrounded by water</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Element

A substance that cannot be broken down, and is a building block of all things.

Compound

A substance formed by two or more DIFFERENT bonded atoms.

Essential elements for life

The elements needed for life processes, approximately 20-25% of all elements.

Trace elements

Elements present in living organisms in small amounts or specific organisms.

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Toxic natural elements

Natural elements that can be harmful in certain amounts.

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Atomic Number

The number of protons in an atom's nucleus.

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Mass Number

The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.

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Isotopes

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

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Atomic Mass

The average mass of all naturally occurring isotopes of an element, calculated by their abundance.

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Radioactive Isotope

An unstable isotope whose nucleus decays, releasing energy.

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Half-life

The time it takes for half of a radioactive sample to decay.

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Radioactive Tracer

A radioactive isotope used to track processes in a living organism.

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Mother Isotope

The original radioactive isotope.

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Daughter Isotope

The stable element formed after radioactive decay.

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Radiometric Dating

A method to determine the age of fossils or rocks by measuring the amount of radioactive decay in a sample.

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Electron Energy

Electrons possess energy based on their distance from the nucleus. The farther away an electron is, the more potential energy it has.

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Electron Shells

Electrons can only exist in specific energy levels called electron shells, not between shells. Electrons can move shells by absorbing or losing precise amounts of energy.

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Valence Electrons

The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom, called the valence shell, determine an atom's chemical behavior.

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Full Valence Shell

Atoms with a full valence shell are very stable and unreactive.

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Orbitals

Regions around the nucleus where an electron is most likely to be found (90% of the time).

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Atom Reactivity

The reactivity of an atom depends on the number of unpaired electrons in its orbitals.

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Atom's Nucleus

The dense, positively charged center of an atom, composed of protons and neutrons.

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Electron Transition

The movement of an electron from one energy level (shell) to another by absorbing or releasing energy.

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Chemical Bonds

Forces that hold atoms together in molecules and compounds, resulting from interactions between electrons.

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Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed by the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between atoms.

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Lewis Dot Structure

A representation of an atom or molecule using dots to symbolize valence electrons.

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Double Bond

A covalent bond formed by the sharing of two pairs of electrons between two atoms.

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Valence

The number of covalent bonds an atom can form, determined by the number of electrons needed to fill its valence shell.

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Electronegativity

The measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons in a covalent bond.

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Nonpolar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond where electrons are shared equally between atoms, due to equal electronegativity.

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Polar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond where electrons are shared unequally, due to differences in electronegativity.

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Ionic Bond

A chemical bond resulting from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, formed by the complete transfer of electrons.

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Salt

A compound formed by an ionic bond, typically containing a metal and a non-metal.

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Hydrogen Bond

A weak chemical bond formed between a hydrogen atom covalently linked to a highly electronegative atom and another electronegative atom.

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Structural Formula

A representation of a molecule where lines represent covalent bonds between atoms.

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Ion

An atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a net positive or negative charge.

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Cation

A positively charged ion, formed when an atom loses one or more electrons.

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Anion

A negatively charged ion, formed when an atom gains one or more electrons.

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Van der Waals Interactions

Weak, temporary attractions between molecules due to temporary fluctuations in electron distribution.

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Kilocalorie

A unit of energy used to measure the energy content of food. One kilocalorie is equal to 1000 calories.

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Joule (J)

The standard unit of energy in the International System of Units (SI). One calorie equals 4.184 Joules.

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Specific Heat

The amount of heat energy a substance needs to absorb or lose to change temperature by one degree Celsius. It's specific to each substance.

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Why does water have a high specific heat?

Water has strong hydrogen bonds, requiring a large amount of heat to break them and raise its temperature. This makes it resistant to temperature changes.

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Heat of Vaporization

The amount of heat energy needed to convert one gram of liquid into a gas. Water has a high heat of vaporization due to its hydrogen bonds.

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Evaporative Cooling

The process where a substance cools down as its warmest molecules evaporate, leaving behind cooler molecules.

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Water's Role in Temperature Regulation

Water's high specific heat and heat of vaporization help regulate Earth's temperature and maintain stable conditions for life.

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Transiency of Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen bonds in water are constantly forming and breaking, allowing for fluidity and movement of water molecules.

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Ice's Lower Density

Ice is less dense than liquid water, allowing it to float. This insulates the water below, protecting aquatic life.

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Aqueous Solution

A solution where a solute is dissolved in water. An example is salt dissolved in water.

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Chemical Reaction

A process that involves the breaking and formation of chemical bonds between atoms and molecules, resulting in the transformation of reactants into products.

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Conservation of Mass

The principle stating that mass cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. Atoms are simply rearranged, not lost or gained.

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Reversible Reaction

A chemical reaction where the products can react to form the original reactants. It's like a two-way street.

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Reaction Rate

The speed at which a chemical reaction occurs. It's affected by reactant concentration, temperature, and other factors.

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Chemical Equilibrium

A state where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. The concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.

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Water's Polarity

Water has a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom and partial positive charges on the hydrogen atoms, making it a polar molecule.

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Cohesion

The tendency of like molecules to stick together, due to hydrogen bonding in water.

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Surface Tension

The force that causes the surface of a liquid to contract, due to cohesion and the lack of bonding to the air above.

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Adhesion

The tendency of different molecules to stick together. Important for water moving up plants.

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High Specific Heat of Water

Water absorbs a large amount of heat before its temperature increases significantly. This is due to the energy required to break hydrogen bonds between water molecules.

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High Heat of Vaporization of Water

Water requires a large amount of heat to evaporate because energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds holding water molecules together.

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Hydration Shell

A sphere of water molecules surrounding a dissolved ion, formed due to the attraction between the ion's charge and the opposite partial charges of water molecules.

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Hydrophilic

Describes substances that easily dissolve in water due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. These substances have polar regions or charges.

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Hydrophobic

Describes substances that repel water and do not dissolve in it. They lack polar regions and primarily consist of nonpolar molecules.

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Molecular Mass

The sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule. It is measured in Daltons (Da) and represents the weight of a molecule.

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Mole (mol)

A unit of measurement representing 6.02 x 10^23 entities (atoms, molecules, etc.). It is a convenient way to express the amount of substance.

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Molar Mass

The mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams per mole (g/mol). It is numerically equal to the molecular mass of that substance.

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One Molar Solution

A solution containing one mole of solute dissolved in one liter of solvent (usually water).

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Molarity

The concentration of a solution, expressed as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution (mol/L).

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Hydrogen Ion (H+)

A positively charged hydrogen atom formed when a water molecule loses a hydrogen atom.

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Hydroxide Ion (OH-)

A negatively charged ion left after a water molecule loses a hydrogen atom.

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Hydronium Ion (H3O+)

A positively charged ion formed when a water molecule gains a hydrogen atom.

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Buffer

A substance that resists changes in pH by absorbing or releasing hydrogen ions (H+).

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Carbonic Acid Buffer System

A key buffer system in blood that helps maintain its pH balance.

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Ocean Acidification

The decrease in the pH of ocean water caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

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Study Notes

Concept 2.1: Chemical Composition of Life

  • Elements are basic substances that cannot be broken down further, forming the building blocks of all matter.
  • Compounds are substances formed from two or more different bonded atoms.
  • Life requires 20-25% of the 92 naturally occurring elements.
    • Humans need 25 elements.
    • Plants need 17 elements.
  • Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen make up 96% of living matter.
  • Calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur make up the remaining 4%.
  • Trace elements are present in small quantities in specific organisms.
  • Some naturally occurring elements are toxic, but organisms in these environments have evolved tolerance.

Concept 2.2: Atoms and Atomic Structure

  • Atoms are the smallest units of elements.

  • Subatomic particles include neutrons, protons, and electrons.

  • Protons (positive charge) and electrons (negative charge) are electrically charged.

  • Protons and neutrons are tightly packed into the atom's nucleus.

  • Electrons orbit the nucleus, forming a region of negative charge.

  • Atomic mass is measured in daltons.

    • Neutrons and protons have a mass of 1 Dalton.
    • Electrons have a significantly smaller mass (around 1/2000 of a Dalton), and are thus ignored in calculating atomic mass.

  • Atomic number = number of protons (usually equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom).

  • Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons.

  • Atomic mass = average mass of all isotopes of an element, a decimal value reflecting the relative abundance of isotopes.

  • Isotopes are atoms of the same element with differing numbers of neutrons.

  • Radioactive isotopes are unstable and release energy (e.g., heat) as their nuclei decay.

    • The decay can convert one element into another.

  • Radioactive tracers are used to track isotopes within organisms (e.g., PET scans).

  • Half-life refers to the time it takes for half of a radioactive isotope to decay.

  • Radiometric dating calculates the passage of half-lives since a fossil or rock formed.

  • Atoms are mostly empty space.

    • Electrons are involved in chemical reactions, not the nucleus.

  • Energy is the capacity to cause change.

  • Matter tends to move towards lower energy states (e.g., water flowing downhill).

  • Electrons exist in specific energy levels (electron shells) around the nucleus, determined by distance.

  • Energy absorption or release is required for electrons to move between electron shells.

  • A chemical's behavior is dependent on its electron configuration.

    • First shell holds 2 electrons, second shell holds 8
    • Valence shell (outermost shell) and valence electrons dictate chemical behavior.

  • Atoms with filled valence shells are largely unreactive.

  • Orbitals are regions where an electron is most likely to be found (90% probability).

  • The reactivity of an atom depends on the arrangement of unpaired electrons in its orbitals.

Concept 2.3: Chemical Bonds

  • Chemical bonds form when atoms with incomplete electron shells interact to achieve a filled outer shell.
  • Covalent bonds involve sharing electron pairs.
  • Lewis dot structures show electron distribution as dots (e.g., H:H).
  • Structural formulas use lines to represent bonds (e.g., H-H).
  • Double bonds involve the sharing of two pairs of electrons.
  • Valence is an atom's bonding capacity, determined by the number of electrons needed to fill its valence shell.
  • Electronegativity measures an atom's attraction for shared electrons.
  • Nonpolar covalent bonds form between atoms with similar electronegativity.
  • Polar covalent bonds form between atoms with different electronegativity; the bond is then polarized.
  • Ions are atoms that have gained or lost electrons.
  • Cations are positively charged ions, anions are negatively charged ions.
  • Ionic bonds form between oppositely charged ions.
  • Salts are ionic compounds formed from ionic bonds.
  • Ionic bonds are stronger in dry conditions but weaker when in solution.
  • Weak chemical interactions (e.g., hydrogen bonds, van der Waals) are crucial for molecular interactions in cells.
    • Hydrogen bonds involve a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative atom.
    • Van der Waals forces create temporary attractions between molecules.
  • Molecular shape influences interactions with other molecules.

Concept 2.4: Chemical Reactions

  • Chemical reactions involve bond formation and breaking.
  • Reactants produce products.
  • Mass is conserved in chemical reactions (atoms are rearranged).
  • Reversible reactions occur when products can reform reactants.
  • Reaction rates can be affected by reactant concentrations.
  • Chemical equilibrium occurs when the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal.

Concept 3.1: Properties of Water

  • Water's polarity results in hydrogen bonding, causing water molecules to attract each other.
  • Hydrogen bonds in liquid water are constantly forming and breaking.
  • Ice is less dense than liquid water due to hydrogen bonding in crystal structure.
  • Water exhibits polar covalent bonds.
  • Polarity describes molecules with unequal charge distributions.

Concept 3.2: Water's Unique Properties

  • Cohesion is the attraction between like molecules (e.g. water molecules).
  • Surface tension results from cohesion, creating a "skin".
  • Adhesion is the clinging of one substance to another different substance (e.g., water to plant cells).
  • High specific heat means water can absorb a substantial amount of heat before its temperature increases.
  • Water resists temperature change.
  • Hydrogen bonding is crucial to water's high specific heat, as breaking H-bonds requires considerable energy.

Concept 3.3: Water's Role as a Solvent

  • Water is an excellent solvent.
    • Water molecules surround dissolved substances leading to a hydration shell.
  • Hydrophilic substances dissolve in water.
  • Hydrophobic substances do not interact readily with water.

Additional Concepts

  • Matter terms: Kinetic Energy, thermal energy, temperature, heat, calorie, kilocalorie, joule, specific heat
  • Heat of vaporization describes energy needed to change liquid to gas.
  • Solutions involve solutes dissolved in solvents.
  • Molarity is a unit of concentration.
  • Molecules have an associated mass determined by summing constituent atomic masses.
  • Moles are a unit relating mass to the number of molecules (Avogadro's number).
  • pH is related to H+ concentration.
  • Buffers resist pH change and maintain homeostasis.
  • Ocean acidification is a consequence of increased CO2 leading to lower pH in the oceans.

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