Biology Chapter 1 and 2: Human Body Basics

Study Notes

Levels of Organization: Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.
Characteristics of Life: Organization, metabolism, responsiveness, movement, development, reproduction.
Homeostasis: Maintaining stable internal conditions, controlled through negative feedback (e.g., temperature regulation) or positive feedback (e.g., childbirth).
Anatomy Defined: Study of structure.
Physiology Defined: Study of function.
Directional Terms: Anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.
Body Planes and Sections: Sagittal, transverse, and frontal planes.
Body Cavities and Membranes: Dorsal (cranial and spinal cavities) and ventral (thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities).

Matter and Elements: Matter is anything with mass and occupies space. Elements are pure substances, including oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
Atomic Structure: Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Isotopes are atoms with varying numbers of neutrons.
Chemical Bonds: Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons, covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons, and hydrogen bonds are weak interactions between polar molecules.
Chemical Reactions: Synthesis builds larger molecules, decomposition breaks down molecules, and exchange rearranges molecules.
Water's Importance: Water is a solvent, has a high heat capacity, and plays roles in chemical reactions (like hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis).
Macromolecules: Carbohydrates are energy sources (monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides); lipids store energy and are structural (triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids); and proteins are built from amino acids and have functions including enzymes, transport, and support.
- Specific examples of molecules were requested:
  - Five monosaccharides are not listed.
  - Specific disaccharide examples not provided.
  - Cholesterol origin not provided.

Cell Theory: All living things are composed of cells.
Cell Structure:
- Plasma Membrane: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins to regulate substance movement.
- Cytoplasm: Contains organelles and cytosol.
Organelles and Functions:
- Nucleus: Control center stores DNA.
- Mitochondria: Powerhouses, ATP production.
- Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Smooth (lipid synthesis) and rough (protein processing).
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.
- Lysosomes: Break down waste.
- Cytoskeleton: Structural support and transport.

Transport Mechanisms:
- Passive Transport: Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion (no energy).
- Active Transport: Requires energy (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).
- Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Bulk transport of materials.
Cell Division:
- Mitosis: Division of somatic cells (Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis).
- Meiosis: Production of gametes (Reproductive cells only).
DNA and Protein Synthesis:
- DNA Replication: Copying DNA (before cell division).
- Transcription: DNA to RNA.
- Translation: RNA to Protein (at ribosomes).
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA are built from nucleotides.
pH and Buffers: pH measures acidity or alkalinity (0-14 scale). Buffers maintain stable pH.
Functional Groups: Examples of functional groups including hydroxyl, methyl, phosphate, and amino.