Biology Branches and Cell Structure

Cell Structure:
- Plasma membrane: outermost layer of cell
- Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance inside cell
- Nucleus: contains genetic material (DNA)
Cellular Processes:
- Metabolism: conversion of energy and nutrients
- Photosynthesis: process by which plants produce energy
- Cell Division: process of cell growth and reproduction
- Cell Signaling: communication between cells

DNA Structure:
- Double helix model
- Nucleotides: building blocks of DNA
Gene Expression:
- Transcription: process of creating mRNA from DNA
- Translation: process of creating protein from mRNA
Inheritance:
- Mendelian inheritance: study of how traits are passed down
- Genotype: genetic makeup of an individual
- Phenotype: physical characteristics of an individual

Mechanisms of Evolution:
- Natural Selection: process of adaptation to environment
- Genetic Drift: random change in gene frequency
- Gene Flow: movement of genes between populations
- Mutation: change in DNA sequence
Evidence for Evolution:
- Fossil Record: chronological record of ancient life forms
- Comparative Anatomy: study of similarities and differences between species
- Molecular Biology: study of DNA and protein sequences

Ecosystems:
- Producers: organisms that produce their own food (plants)
- Consumers: organisms that obtain energy by consuming other organisms
- Decomposers: organisms that break down dead organic matter
Energy Flow:
- Food Chains: linear sequence of energy transfer
- Food Webs: complex network of energy transfer
Ecosystem Services:
- Provisioning Services: provision of resources (food, water, etc.)
- Regulating Services: regulation of ecosystem processes (climate, etc.)
- Cultural Services: cultural and recreational benefits

Botany: Focuses on the study and classification of plants, including their physiology and ecology.
Zoology: Involves the study of animals, including their behavior, physiology, and genetic relationships.
Microbiology: Examines microorganisms, their role in ecosystems, human health, and disease.
Ecology: Investigates interactions among organisms and their environments, including ecosystems and biodiversity.
Biochemistry: Studies the chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
Molecular Biology: Explores biological molecules and their interactions, particularly in the context of cellular processes.
Genetics: Focuses on heredity, variation, and the molecular mechanisms of gene function and expression.
Evolutionary Biology: Analyzes the processes driving evolution, including adaptation, speciation, and phylogenetics.

Cell Structure:
- Plasma membrane: Acts as a protective barrier and regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
- Cytoplasm: Contains various organelles and is the site of metabolic reactions.
- Nucleus: Houses DNA, the genetic blueprint responsible for heredity and cellular function.
Cellular Processes:
- Metabolism: Represents all chemical reactions within a cell that convert energy and nutrients into usable forms.
- Photosynthesis: Unique to plants, it is the process by which sunlight converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
- Cell Division: Includes mitosis (growth and repair) and meiosis (reproductive cell division).
- Cell Signaling: Involves biochemical signals that facilitate communication among cells to coordinate functions.

DNA Structure:
- Double helix model: Represents the physical structure of DNA, discovered by Watson and Crick.
- Nucleotides: Composed of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base; they are the fundamental units of DNA.
Gene Expression:
- Transcription: The process where a segment of DNA is copied into RNA (specifically mRNA).
- Translation: The process in which ribosomes synthesize proteins based on the sequence of mRNA.
Inheritance:
- Mendelian inheritance: Describes the patterns of inheritance observed by Gregor Mendel, illustrating dominant and recessive traits.
- Genotype: Refers to the genetic constitution of an individual organism.
- Phenotype: Represents an individual's observable characteristics resulting from the genotype and environmental influences.

Mechanisms of Evolution:
- Natural Selection: A key process in evolution where organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce.
- Genetic Drift: Describes random fluctuations in allele frequencies within a population, particularly in small populations.
- Gene Flow: Involves the transfer of genetic material between separate populations through migration.
- Mutation: Refers to any change in the DNA sequence, providing the raw material for evolution.
Evidence for Evolution:
- Fossil Record: Offers chronological insights into the history of life on Earth and the changes in species over time.
- Comparative Anatomy: Highlights structural similarities and differences among species, providing clues to evolutionary relationships.
- Molecular Biology: Investigates genetic similarities at the molecular level, such as DNA and protein sequences, supporting evolutionary theory.

Ecosystems:
- Producers: Organisms like plants that create their own food through processes such as photosynthesis.
- Consumers: Herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores that obtain energy by consuming producers or other consumers.
- Decomposers: Organisms, such as fungi and bacteria, that break down dead organic matter, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.
Energy Flow:
- Food Chains: Simplified linear representations of energy transfer from one trophic level to another.
- Food Webs: Complex networks illustrating the interconnected feeding relationships among various organisms in an ecosystem.
Ecosystem Services:
- Provisioning Services: Refers to the products obtained from ecosystems, such as food, water, and raw materials.
- Regulating Services: Involves the benefits derived from ecosystem processes that regulate climate, water quality, and disease.
- Cultural Services: Encompasses non-material benefits, including recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual enrichment derived from ecosystems.