Biological Theories on Gender

Module Overview: Theoretical Underpinnings and Perspectives on Gender

• This module aims to explain the role of biology in the development of sex and sexuality.
• It examines psychological explanations in the formation of gender identity. Compare sociological perspectives on gender and sex.

Biological Theories on Gender

• Biological approaches assert that there is no distinction between sex and gender.
• Biological sex creates gendered behavior, according to the biological approach
• Gender is determined by hormones and chromosomes from a biological standpoint.

Hormones and Gender

• Hormones are chemical substances secreted by glands and circulated through the bloodstream
• Testosterone is a sex hormone affecting development and behavior before and after birth.
• Males have a higher presence of testosterone compared to females.
• Testosterone produced in the womb causes the hypothalamus to become masculinized, inducing the development of male sex organs at 7 weeks.
• Testosterone causes aggression, competitiveness, visuospatial abilities, and a higher sexual drive.
• Testosterone affects brain development, influencing the L hemisphere (language skills) and the R hemisphere (non-verbal, special skills).
• A 1995 study used MRI scans to examine the brain during language tasks.
• The study's findings: women used both hemispheres while men used only the left.

Chromosomes and Gender

• Chromosomes are the biochemical units of heredity that govern the development of every human being.
• Each pair of chromosomes controls different aspects of development.
• Biological sex is determined by the 23rd chromosome pair, physically resembling the letters X and Y.

The SRY Gene

• The SRY gene, or Sex-determining Region Y gene, is located on the Y chromosome
• The SRY gene leads the embryo's gonads (sex organs) to develop into testes at 6 weeks.
• If the embryo lacks a Y chromosome, it will lack the SRY gene
• The lack of the SRY gene leads to the gonads growing into ovaries.
• The SRY gene is sometimes absent from the Y chromosome or does not function.
• In these cases, a baby develops, is born, grows up to be a small girl, then a woman, yet their chromosomes are XY.
• In 1991 research discovered that inserting the SRY gene into female mice caused them to evolve into male mice.
• This discovery was applied as a form of gender verification at the 1992 Olympic Games.
• This contributed to the establishment of a system by the International Olympic Committee.
• Some female athletes were not allowed to compete because they carried the SRY gene.

Atypical Chromosomes

• Atypical chromosomes lead to the development differently from individuals with typical or conventional chromosomes socially, physically, and cognitively.
• Psychologists examine people with atypical sex chromosomes.
• They compare their development to that of people with typical sex chromosomes.
• Psychologists can discover which forms of behavior are genetic.

Turner's Syndrome (XO)

• A condition in which females have only one X chromosome on chromosome 23 (1 in 5000).
• Characterized by a lack of puberty maturation and a webbing of the neck.
• Those with Turner's Syndrome also develop disparities in cognitive skills and behavior compared to conventional chromosomal patterns, in addition to physical differences
• Those affected have above-average verbal abilities.
• This is combined with below-average spatial abilities, visual memory, and mathematical abilities.
• Those affected struggle with social adjustment at school and have generally poor peer relationships.

Klinefelter's Syndrome (XXY)

• A condition in which men have a Y chromosome as well as an extra X on the 23rd chromosome (1 in 750)
• Those with Klinefelter's Syndrome physically resemble men, but with less body hair and underdeveloped genitals.
• A key sign of this condition is when, as a child, the boy's linguistic skills are lacking.
• This can show itself as the child being unable to communicate at the age of three
• Weak language abilities impact reading ability in school.
• Quiet and cooperative demeanor as babies; tranquil and shy for the rest of their lives.

The Nature of Intersex

• "Intersex" is a phrase for bodies born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't fit neatly into the categories of "male" or "female" .
• Intersex people are born with sex characteristics, including genitals, gonads, and chromosome patterns that don't fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies.
• Doctors usually give intersex children a legal sex, male or female in most states.
• However, this doesn't guarantee that's the gender identification they'll grow up with, similar to non-intersex people
• Being intersex is a natural human variation and not a medical condition.
• Therefore, medical procedures such as surgeries or hormone therapy on youngsters are often unnecessary
• Estimates show that roughly 1-2 out of every 100 persons born in the United States are intersex

Physical Indicators of Intersex

• A baby may have a clitoris that's larger than expected, or a penis that's smaller than expected
• No vaginal opening
• A penis without a urethra opening at the tip--the opening occurs of the underside.
• Labia are closed or otherwise resemble a scrotum.
• The individual develops a scrotum that is empty and resembles labia.
• A baby's genitalia may look completely male on the outside but female on the inside or vice versa.
• A child's status as intersex may not become obvious until puberty.
• This occurs when the body produces more hormones that do not match the assigned sex.
• Sometimes individuals do not reach expected milestones or develop opposite sex characteristics.
• It's possible for one to have intersex traits and never know it.
• Doctors and families usually decide on a sex (male or female) when someone is born intersex.
• The child is then raised according to this sex's gender.
• As a youngster approaches puberty, it's usual to have surgery on the baby's genitals and to give the infant hormones to help them fit into male/female categories.
• With the intersex activism, intersex is no longer regarded as an illness but a normal healthy way for bodies to be.
• Surgery and medical procedures on intersex babies should be avoided, and intersex individuals should decide when already older.

Human Rights Abuses Against Intersex People

• Human rights abuses against intersex people include infanticide, forced and coercive medical interventions and discrimination
• Discrimination takes place in education, sport, employment and other services in addition to lack of access to justice and remedies

Evolutionary Approach to Gender

• Aspects of human behavior have been coded by genes because they were or are adaptive.
• The brain evolved to solve problems encountered by hunter-gatherer ancestors during the upper Pleistocene period (10,000+ years ago).
• Gender role division appears as an adaptation to the challenges faced by ancestral humans.
• The mind is equipped with 'instincts' that enabled ancestors to survive and reproduce.
• Two sexes developed different strategies to ensure their survival and reproductive success.
• This explains why men and women differ psychologically.
• They tend to occupy different social roles, specifically the division of labor.

Biosocial Approach to Gender

• Biosocial approaches are an interactionist approach whereby nature and nurture influence gender development.
• Social labeling and differential treatment, which occur once a person is born socially, interact with the biological factors to steer development
• Attempts to integrate the influences of nature and nurture guide the biosocial approach.

Activity 1 for Module 3: Biological Theories Debate

• Divide into two groups to research the "Nature" argument in relation to gender development. The second group will cover the "Nurture" argument.
• Form three subgroups and assign each subgroup to research on one argument supporting their stance on the topic.
• Group leaders will submit arguments by March 19, 2025.
• Members of each group must prepare to report research findings at the next meeting on March 20, 2025 and prepare to be interpellated by the other group.

Sociological Theories on Gender

• Sociological views operate according to the CORE PREMISE that: Human behavior is shaped by the groups to which people belong and the social interactions that take place inside those groups.
• People are who they are and act the way they do because they live in a specific civilization at a specific point in time and space.
• A sociological perspective allows us to perceive society as a transient social product made by humans and capable of change
• The sociology of gender investigates how society shapes our perceptions of masculinity and femininity
• This also involves an investigation into how those perceptions affect identity and social practices
• The field pays specific attention to the power relationships arising from established gender orders and how gender develops over time

Functionalist Perspective on Gender

• Gender stratification is the degree of unequal access by genders to prestige, authority, power, rights, and economic resources
• The degree of stratification can be measured by how a culture values women relative to men and vice versa.
• It can also be determined by the level of divided power as well as possession of rights and responsibilities

Division of Labor and Gender Roles

• Division of labor divides and specializes cooperative labor into circumscribed tasks and roles.
• Gendered division of labor refers to the performance of different work tasks by men and women.
• Society is a complex system whose components work together to generate solidarity and stability.
• Functionalism approaches its subjects from a macro-level view of society, focusing on the social institutions that shape society as a whole.
• Gender inequalities, creates a division of labor and work .
• One segment of the population is responsible for labor activities, while another section is responsible for other labor acts
• Social order is maintained through functional requirements, such as gender, and social stability of functional conditions.

Gender Roles

• Men are put into instrumental roles in society, while women are in expressive roles
• Functionalists view a gendered division of labor as important and necessary for the smooth functioning of a modern society.
• It suggests that socialization into prescribed roles drives gender inequality by encouraging men and women to make different choices about family and work.
• Critics would counter that this is outdated and sexist. They believe that research suggests that the wage gap is a result of ingrained gender biases rather than choice.

Conflict Theory on Gender

• Social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones and.
• For this reason conflict theory advocates for a balance of power between genders
• Family structure, according to Engels, is linked to the bourgeoisie-proletariat connection and that women lack power and authority in their household.
• Men, like any other group with power, struggle to keep control of resources.
• In this way conflict theory believes that two factor struggles leads to social transformation such as the Women's Suffrage Movement.
• It posits that gender inequality is maintained because men wish to maintain power and privilege at the expense of women

Gender and Society

• Gender and assumptions/biases about gender differences empower men, cause the oppression of women, and create the structural inequality of women relative to men
• Gendered power dynamics are built into social structure and manifested throughout a patriarchal society.
• Wage inequalities between men and women result from men's historic power to devalue women's work.

Symbolic Interactionism and Gender

• Symbolic Interactionism posits that that people behave in society, and that the meaning is created through interactions between people.
• As such, gender becomes produced through interaction and encounters.
• Gender results from using symbols in everyday relationships leading people to interact according to expectations
• Cooley's concept of the looking-glass self demonstrates this: a person's gender role is founded on the how society perceives the.
• This manifests when, if society perceives a man as manly, he will perceive himself as masculine as well

Doing Gender and Societal Impact on Meaning

• "Doing gender" declares that masculinity and femininity are performed as gender identities.
• Gender is a function or performance, not a personality trait.
• This occurs through a micro-level everyday interactions.
• This produces and challenges gender as society understands gender
• Gender's instability and fluidity are highlighted.
• Gender is changeable since it is produced by people through interaction.

Feminist Theories in Sociology

• Feminist theories build on the three areas of theory, focusing on the structural forces, values, world views, norms, and everyday behaviors that create inequality.
• Feminist ideologies operate from a framework of injustice based on gender, in addition to advocating to change those social force to create a just and equal society.

Feminist Movements

• The feminist movement acts under many names like women's liberation or just feminism.
• Political campaigns look to reform a series of issues that affect women's quality of life.

First Wave Feminism (1848-1920)

• Women's suffrage movement and its promotion of the woman's right to vote defined first wave feminism.
• The 19th amendment to the constitution granted white women the right to vote in 1920.
• However, women of color would not have the universal right to vote until the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
• This was 45 years later
• Key figures with the Suffragists were Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Ida B. Wells, Ellen Watkins Harper, and Sojourner Truth.

Second Wave Feminism (1960s-1980s)

• A broader range of concerns were in focus such as pay equity, reproductive rights, female sexuality, and domestic abuse.
• Progress was attained through legislation and significant court rulings
• Attempts to include racial justice in the second wave movement remained a lower priority than gender.
• As such class and race were secondary concerns.
• Second wave feminism was able to narrow the gap between white women and white men was narrowed.
• However, the gap between women of color and white men, or women of color and white women, remained unchanged

Context of Second Wave Feminism

• Second-wave feminists, like first-wave feminists, were influenced by social movements. Civil rights, the anti-war, environmental, student, gay rights, and farmworkers movements all influenced the discussion

Third Wave Feminism (1990s-2008)

• The focus was the micro-politics of GENDER EQUALITY by opposing heteronormativity and creating diversity.
• It aimed to redefine femininity and promote diversity of race, class, and sexual orientation
• This ideology embraces feminism, but rejects some assumptions of the feminine ideal, rejecting the term "feminism
• The concept of intersectionality emerged, separating its ideas from the second wave

Third Wave Feminism and Intersectionality

• The term intersectionality was created to explain how race, class, gender, and other human characteristics intersect and overlap
• Feminist ideas used mass media, especially the internet ("cybergrrls" and "netgrrls"), to establish a world wide, multicultured, and boundary crossing feminism
• Macro sociological issues, such as sexual harassment and sexual assault, were not properly addressed by third wave feminism
• Identification took the focus over boundary

Aims of the Third Wave

• Preceding waves of feminism created the way for the primary challenges of the Third Wave
• The campaign to eliminate pay discrepancies between men and women, as well as women's reproductive rights, remained at the forefront
• Work towards ending violence against women in continues and acceptance became more common and defined the term 'feminist

Fourth Wave Feminism (2008-Present)

• Movements gained traction in the margins and became front page news with action-based viral campaigns such as #MeToo.
• Feminism became more queer, sex-positive, trans-inclusive, body-positive, and technologically driven.
• A core goal is to dismantle gender norms and challenge White Supremacy, with the belief that current Feminism is incomplete and must move towards comprehensive justice that will dismantle the power structures that uphold inequality

Feminism in the Philippines

• Significant advancements have been made in the Philippine women's movements that led to social equality in economic and political spaces.
• However, addressing inequalities in political representation and economic opportunities, aggression and violence, as well as the specter of patriarchy are ongoing issues
• The movement demonstrates "growth and momentum", but minority groups such as lesbians, bisexuals, and transwomen continue to challenge its limits for all women

Key Feminist Theories

• Inequality between men and women is universal and the most significant form of inequality.
• Gender norms are socially constructed, not determined by biology. Can thus be changed
• Patriarchy is the main cause of gender inequality – women are subordinate because men have more power.
• Feminism is a political movement; it exists to rectify sexual inequalities, but many theories compete and disagree

Conflict Theory

• Feminist theory is a form of conflict theory that investigates gender inequality by using its perspective to examine the perpetuation of roles.
• As seen from a Radical feminist perspective, male efforts are seen to be more valuable in patriarchal society.
• This is because patriarchal viewpoints and arrangements are assumed and dismiss women's viewpoints/voices

Queer Theories for Gender

• An interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies highlights Western society's division of gender (male and female) and challenges traditional views of orientation.
• Therefore, Queer theory rejects conventions or mainstream expressions of behavior, gender, and sexuality, with the belief that identities shift, change and are not fixed across time or location.

Gender Intersectionality Theory

• Different biological, social, and cultural characteristics interact and contribute to systematic societal inequity such that a black woman's inequality differs from that of a black man/white woman.
• The study of these overlapping characteristics is important in understanding/addressing inequality.

Gender and Standpoint Theory

• Standpoint Theory states that knowledge stems from one's social position and proposes that authority is rooted in one's personal knowledge and views.
• A person's experiences and social group membership influences their views on the world.
• The theory suggests focusing on women's lived experience across various contexts.

Impact of Sociological Theories

• A critical interrogation of how social forces interact with social structure can help us understand these phenomenon
• Further research can lead insight into identity, power, oppression, and interaction as it relates to race, class culture, religion and sexuality

Psychological Theories on Gender

• Butler refers to gender as an activity, not a state of being.
• She describes "the repetitive stylization of the body, a series of repeated acts".
• These actions in a rigorous regulatory frame solidifies over time to generate the illusion of natural existence.
• Perspective understands gender in its performance or its actualization

Psychodynamic Perspective on Gender

• The psychological theories of gender includes all the ideologies created by Freud (and his followers) to explain people's behavior
• These emphasize unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts from the past as influences on behavior
• This includes exploration of drives, desires, and defense mechanisms (in shaping personality and behavior)
• Freud's psychoanalytic theory asserts that gender development takes place during the phallic stage.

Gender Role Development (Freud)

• During the phallic stage, the child's libido is focused on their genitals.
• For boys, they experience the Oedipus complex and take on a male gender role and identify with their father.
• Girls experience the Electra complex.
• Thus they identify with their mother and takes a female gender role.

Social Learning Theory for Gender

• This theory asserts that people's behaviors are adapted through observation. Children begin to imitate the behavior of others

Cognitive Social Learning for Gender

• Takes into account how people behave and adapt to others.
• These societal factors influence children and affect their ability to recognize/demonstrate their own gender
• • If people show gendered behavior and certain expectations, it can alter the behavior
• If someone is taught proper gender conduct, it will alter behavior
• Enactive: essential to encounter and react to gendered behavior. If people do not, it will affect them later.

Cognitive Development Theory For Gender

• As we mature mentally alongside physical growth, our structures change with our experiences.
• Gender will adapt alongside and change as it takes hold.

Gender Schema Theory

• It suggests that the mind has created an outline on all genders after birth, creating a sort of template
• People begin to actively filter/create schemas within it based on their own life experiences and behaviors
• Schemas help people to manage gendering and decision making

Implications of Gender Study

• Gender perspectives focus particularly on status and power differences, the way past/present discrimination have led society to build these values.
• Gender can serve as a strategy in a design/policy context. It monitors existing norms in society and attempts to influence future structures of power