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Questions and Answers
Which of the following is NOT a function of protein?
Which of the following is NOT a function of protein?
What is the key difference between the 20 common amino acids?
What is the key difference between the 20 common amino acids?
Which of the following accurately describes the flow of genetic information in the Central Dogma?
Which of the following accurately describes the flow of genetic information in the Central Dogma?
Which statement best describes the role of DNA in the Central Dogma?
Which statement best describes the role of DNA in the Central Dogma?
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What is the primary function of RNA in the context of protein synthesis?
What is the primary function of RNA in the context of protein synthesis?
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Which of the following is NOT part of the four classes of lipids?
Which of the following is NOT part of the four classes of lipids?
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Which of the following statements is TRUE about saturated fatty acids?
Which of the following statements is TRUE about saturated fatty acids?
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Which of the following statements is TRUE about the structure of phospholipids?
Which of the following statements is TRUE about the structure of phospholipids?
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How does the presence of double bonds in fatty acid chains affect the fluidity of lipids?
How does the presence of double bonds in fatty acid chains affect the fluidity of lipids?
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What is the primary function of the storage of triacylglycerides in adipose tissue?
What is the primary function of the storage of triacylglycerides in adipose tissue?
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Which process involves the breakdown of a triglyceride into glycerol and free fatty acids?
Which process involves the breakdown of a triglyceride into glycerol and free fatty acids?
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What kind of environment do phospholipids tend to form bilayers in?
What kind of environment do phospholipids tend to form bilayers in?
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What is the main structural difference between ribose and deoxyribose?
What is the main structural difference between ribose and deoxyribose?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Which of the following is a characteristic of both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
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Which of the following correctly pairs the nitrogenous bases found in DNA?
Which of the following correctly pairs the nitrogenous bases found in DNA?
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What is the primary function of ATP in the cell?
What is the primary function of ATP in the cell?
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What type of bond connects the phosphate groups in ATP?
What type of bond connects the phosphate groups in ATP?
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What is the primary difference in structure between DNA and RNA?
What is the primary difference in structure between DNA and RNA?
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What is the function of the phosphodiester bond in the structure of DNA?
What is the function of the phosphodiester bond in the structure of DNA?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of DNA?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of DNA?
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What is denaturation in proteins?
What is denaturation in proteins?
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Which of the following factors commonly leads to protein denaturation?
Which of the following factors commonly leads to protein denaturation?
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What do enzymes do?
What do enzymes do?
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What role do substrates play in enzyme activity?
What role do substrates play in enzyme activity?
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How are enzymes named?
How are enzymes named?
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What happens to an enzyme when it binds to a substrate?
What happens to an enzyme when it binds to a substrate?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of ribozymes?
Which of the following is a characteristic of ribozymes?
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What are prosthetic groups?
What are prosthetic groups?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of steroids in the body?
Which of the following is NOT a function of steroids in the body?
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What is the primary function of eicosanoids in the body?
What is the primary function of eicosanoids in the body?
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What type of bond connects fatty acids and long-chain alcohols in waxes?
What type of bond connects fatty acids and long-chain alcohols in waxes?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of carbohydrates?
Which of the following is a characteristic of carbohydrates?
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What is the primary function of carbohydrates in the body?
What is the primary function of carbohydrates in the body?
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The process of tagging biomolecules with carbohydrate chains is known as:
The process of tagging biomolecules with carbohydrate chains is known as:
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Which of the following is NOT a type of eicosanoid?
Which of the following is NOT a type of eicosanoid?
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What is the fundamental building block (monomer) of nucleic acids?
What is the fundamental building block (monomer) of nucleic acids?
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Which type of lipid is the basis for all steroids?
Which type of lipid is the basis for all steroids?
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What is the main difference between DNA and RNA?
What is the main difference between DNA and RNA?
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What is the name of the linkage between two amino acids in a protein?
What is the name of the linkage between two amino acids in a protein?
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Which of the following is NOT a stabilizing force in the tertiary structure of a protein?
Which of the following is NOT a stabilizing force in the tertiary structure of a protein?
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What is the primary structure of a protein?
What is the primary structure of a protein?
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Which structural level of a protein is stabilized by hydrogen bonds?
Which structural level of a protein is stabilized by hydrogen bonds?
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What is the role of chaperone proteins in protein folding?
What is the role of chaperone proteins in protein folding?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of β-pleated sheets?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of β-pleated sheets?
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What is the N-terminus of a polypeptide chain?
What is the N-terminus of a polypeptide chain?
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What is the primary function of the R-groups in a polypeptide chain?
What is the primary function of the R-groups in a polypeptide chain?
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Which of the following is NOT a component of the quaternary structure of a protein?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the quaternary structure of a protein?
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Which of the following best describes the "protein alphabet"?
Which of the following best describes the "protein alphabet"?
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Study Notes
Biological Molecules
- Biomolecules are the molecular players, structures, and organelles of the cell.
- They have distinct structures and biochemical properties.
- Most biomolecules are polymers, made of repeating subunits called monomers.
- Examples of polymers are nucleic acids, proteins, and carbohydrates.
- Lipids are not polymers.
Condensation & Hydrolysis Reactions
- Polymers are composed of smaller repeating subunits called monomers.
- Polymers are formed from monomers through condensation (dehydration) reactions.
- Condensation reactions join monomers together by covalent bonds while removing a water molecule.
- Energy is added during condensation reactions.
- Polymers are broken down into monomers through hydrolysis reactions.
- Hydrolysis reactions break covalent bonds by adding a water molecule.
- Energy is released during hydrolysis reactions.
Lipids
- Lipids are a diverse group of fatty, water-insoluble compounds.
- Lipids are composed Primarily of C, H, and O, but with fewer oxygen atoms compared to carbohydrates.
- Lipids function as energy storage, components of cellular membranes, and hormones.
- Types of lipids include:
- Acylglycerides (neutral fats)
- Phospholipids
- Steroids
- Waxes
- Eicosanoids
Lipids: Triacylglycerides
- Triacylglycerides (triglycerides) are fats or oils.
- They are composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.
- Fatty acids vary in length (14–20 carbons) and in the number of double bonds.
- Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds.
- Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
- Triacylglycerides function as long-term energy storage, structural support, and insulation.
- Lipogenesis creates triglycerides from glycerol and fatty acids.
- Lipolysis breaks down triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids.
Lipids: Phospholipids
- Phospholipids are modified triglycerides.
- Phospholipids have a polar (hydrophilic) head and nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails.
- They arrange themselves in an aqueous environment to form a lipid bilayer, a crucial component of cell membranes.
Lipids: Steroids
- Steroids are flat molecules with four interlocking hydrocarbon rings, with cholesterol as their basic backbone.
- They are synthesized in the liver and absorbed from the diet (milk, eggs, animal fats).
- Steroids are necessary for hormone production and are found in cell membranes.
Lipids: Eicosanoids
- Eicosanoids are a diverse family of 20-carbon fatty acids.
- They are derived from arachidonic acid.
- Eicosanoids include prostaglandins, prostacyclins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes.
- They function as signaling molecules in inflammation, blood clotting, and labor contractions.
Lipids: Waxes
- Waxes are composed of a fatty acid and a long-chain alcohol linked by an ester bond.
- Waxes function as protective barriers, such as in cerumen (earwax).
Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are simple sugars and sugar polymers.
- They are classified by size:
- Monosaccharides: Simple sugars
- Disaccharides: Two simple sugars linked by covalent bonds. - Polysaccharides: Many monosaccharides.
- Carbohydrates contain C, H, and O in a fixed ratio (CH₂O)n.
- Most have 3 to 7 carbons.
- They are formed by condensation reactions & useful for "food" (energy) storage and as structural molecules.
Nucleic Acids
- Nucleic acids are the largest molecules in the body, which store and transfer genetic information within cells.
- Two major classes:
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
- RNA (ribonucleic acid).
- Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides.
- Nucleotides have three components:
- A pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose). - A phosphate group
- A nitrogenous base.
- Covalent linkages between nucleotides are phosphodiester bonds. - DNA is a double helix, with strands running antiparallel, and bases pairing (A with T, and C with G).
- RNA is usually single-stranded.
ATP: The Battery of the Cell
- ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a molecule that stores chemical energy for cellular purposes.
- ATP has an adenine, ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups.
- Energy is stored in the bonds between phosphate groups.
- ATP is an unstable molecule because the phosphate groups repel each other.
DNA
- DNA is a long, double-stranded polymer.
- DNA's backbone consists of alternating sugar and phosphate molecules.
- The two strands run antiparallel and are held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs (A with T, and C with G).
RNA
- RNA is a single-stranded chain of nucleotides.
- RNA's structure is often more complex than DNA's.
- RNA has uracil (U) in place of thymine (T).
- RNA plays various roles in protein synthesis.
Central Dogma of Genetics
- DNA encodes the information that programs all cellular activities (genes).
- RNA is the specific instruction (information from a gene) to create a specific protein.
- Proteins are the tools (or machinery) of cellular function.
Proteins
- Proteins are the basic structural material of the body built from long chains of amino acids.
- Proteins play vital roles in cell function.
- Protein classes and functions include: -Structural -Enzymatic -Regulatory -Motile -Transport -Storage -Defensive
Amino Acids
- Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
- Twenty common amino acids.
- Each amino acid has a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group (-NH₂), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable R group.
- The R group makes each amino acid unique.
Peptide Bonds
- The linking of two amino acids between the amine and carboxyl group.
- This linking is a condensation reaction.
- The resulting polypeptide chain is like a sentence.
Chaperone Proteins
- Chaperone proteins assist in protein folding helping proteins to achieve their functional 3D structure - and prevent accidental, premature, or incorrect folding..
Structure Levels of Proteins
- Primary structure: The linear sequence of amino acids
- Secondary structure: Polypeptide segments exhibiting structural patterns, such as alpha-helices and beta-sheets, based on interactions between R groups.
- Tertiary structure: The sum total of the secondary structures, providing the protein's final 3-dimensional shape with multiple bonds maintaining the structure.
- Quaternary structure: Aggregate of two or more polypeptide chains, maintained by interactions between subunits (hydrophobic interactions, van der Waals forces, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds).
Denaturation
- Denaturation is a process that causes proteins to unfold and lose their shape.
- It can occur due to changes in pH, increases in temperature, and high concentrations of polar substances.
- Denaturation is frequently irreversible.
Enzymes
- Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions, but are not consumed by those reactions.
- Enzymes are highly specific for a particular reaction.
- Most enzymes are proteins, but some are RNA (ribozymes).
- Enzymes function via an active site, a region where a substrate molecule binds.
- Binding modifies the enzyme slightly leading to induced fit between enzyme and substrate.
- Enzymes act by reducing the activation energy and enhancing reaction rates.
- Enzyme activity is influenced by factors such as substrate concentration, temperature, and pH.
Mechanism of Enzyme Actions
- Enzymes facilitate reactions by forming an enzyme-substrate complex
- The enzyme-substrate complex is stabilized by various interactions, and then undergoes an induced fit to modify the bonds in the substrate, and facilitate the breaking of bonds, and rearrangement of atoms to form products.
- The enzyme and products dissociate, enzyme remains unchanged.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the structures and functions of biomolecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. This quiz also covers condensation and hydrolysis reactions related to polymer formation and breakdown. Challenge yourself with questions that assess your understanding of these essential biological concepts.
