Biological, Cognitive & Socioemotional Processes

• Processes of development fall into three categories: biological, cognitive, and socioemotional.

Biological Processes

• Involve changes in an individual's physical nature.
• Examples include genes inherited from parents, brain development, height and weight gain, and puberty.

Cognitive Processes

• Involve changes in thought, intelligence, and language.
• Examples include forming sentences, memorizing a poem, solving math problems, and imagining playing a sport.

Socioemotional Processes

• Involve changes in relationships with other people, emotions, and personality.
• Examples include an infant smiling in response to a mother's touch, joy at a senior prom, and aggression towards a classmate.

Periods of Development

• Prenatal: from conception to birth, a time of significant growth where a single cell develops into a human organism.
• Infancy: from 18-24 months, characterized by dependency on adults and the development of language, thoughts, and social learning.
• Early childhood: from 3-5 years.
• Middle/Late childhood: from 6-11 years, involves elementary school years, reading and writing development, and increased self-control.
• Adolescence: begins around 10-12 years and ends around 18-22 years, including physical changes and the development of independence and identity.

Nature vs Nurture

• Nature refers to biological/genetic impacts on one's traits.
• Nurture refers to the influence from learning, environment, and people on one's traits.
• Both nature and nurture reflect who we are.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

• Continuity is a continuous development, like the growth of a tree.
• Discontinuity involves distinct stages of development, like a caterpillar transforming into a butterfly.
• Both continuity and discontinuity impact our development.

B.F. Skinner

• Skinner's theory involves training humans step by step.
• Each correct response is followed by reinforcement until the required complex behavior is achieved, using a technique called "shaping."

Reinforcement

• Reinforcement is an event that increases the probability that a response will be repeated.
  • Positive reinforcement involves giving something, while negative reinforcement involves taking something away.
  • Reinforcement equals increased behavior (R = INCREASED B).

Positive Reinforcement

• Involves giving something desirable to increase a behavior; for example, a reward or words of affirmation.

Negative Reinforcement

• Involves taking something away to increase a behaviour; for example, taking away electronics.

Punishment

• Punishment equals decreased behavior (P = DECREASED B).
  • Positive punishment involves giving something unpleasant to decrease a behavior, for example chores.
  • Negative punishment involves taking away something pleasant to decrease a behavior, for example toys.

Erik Erikson

• Erikson's theory focuses on the formation of personality, characterized by growth through the resolution of inner conflicts, believing in eight stages of development.

The 8 Ages

• Trust vs. Mistrust (birth - 18 months)
• Autonomy vs. Shame (18 months - 3.5 years)
• Initiative vs. Guilt (3.5 years - 6 years)
• Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years - 12 years)
• Identity vs. Confusion (adolescence)
• Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adult)
• Generativity vs. Stagnation (mature adult)
• Integrity vs. Despair (older adults)

Ivan Pavlov

• Pavlov's theory posits that the environment influences behavior.
• Learning occurs when an environmental stimulus triggers a behavior, and all behavior is caused by something.

Pavlov - Definitions of Stimulus & Response

• UCS (unconditioned stimulus) elicits a UCR (unconditioned response)
• CS (conditioned stimulus)
• CR (conditioned response)
• NS (neutral stimulus)
• Theory Summary: NS + UCS = CR, and after repetitive pairing, the CR creates the CR

Bronfenbrenner

• Bronfenbrenner's theory outlines five environmental systems, which consist of:
• Microsystem: family, friends, peers
• Mesosystem: the system in between the microsystem and the exosystem
• Exosystem: neighbors and friends of family
• Macrosystem: attitudes of culture
• Chronosystem: pattern of environmental events and techniques

Bioecological Models

• Focus more closely on micro-level interactions.
• Process between the individual and their immediate settings.
• Focus on an individual's experience over time.

Social Learning Theory

• Social Learning Theory states that not all behaviors are learned through reinforcement.
• Learning occurs from observing behavior of others.
• We learn from “what leads to what" before performing the actions.

Development of Neurons

• The brain grows and neurons develop.
• Networks allow skills and capabilities.
• Stimulation is crucial.
• Stimulated neurons create complex connections within the brain.

Components of Moving Skills

• Muscular strength: a lot of power in a short amount of time (e.g., strength training/weight lifting).
• Muscular endurance: less power for a longer amount of time (e.g., walking home while carrying groceries).
• Cardiovascular endurance: any activity that elevates heart rate significantly (e.g., running).
• Flexibility: how flexible you are (the more toy stretch the more flexible you will be) (e.g., touching your toes or doing the splits).

Motor Development Phases

• Reflective (0-4 months)
• Rudimentary (0-2 years)
• Fundamental (2-7 years)
• Sport related (7 years - adulthood)

Reflexive

• First sign of controlled development
• Controls all reflective movements
• Eye blink: infant quickly closes eyes with permanent reflex to protect infant from strong stimulation when bright light shines at eyes or clapping near head.
• Rooting: infant turns head to find a nipple with stimulation of stroking cheek near corner of mouth - disappears after 3 weeks
• Sucking: infant sucks finger rhythmically when place tip in infants mouth - gradually replaced by voluntary sucking - permits feeding
• Bradycardic: infant holds breath underwater when placed face down in pool of water for 4-6 months
• Moro: embracing motion when holding infant and letting head drop - disappears after 6 months and helps to cling
• Palmer grasp: infant grabs finger in palm when finger is pressed gently - disappears after four months
• Tonic neck: infant extends one arm to the side of their head when turning head to one side while lying on back
• Stepping: infant lifts one foot after another in stepping response when holding infant underarms and feet touching surface
• Babinski: toes fan out and toe curls inward from stroke sole of infants foot from toe – heel - disappears after 8-12 months

Fundamental

• Evolution of skills (e.g., running, kicking, throwing, catching).

Sport Related

• General: underhand throw is shown in volleyball.
• Specific: underhand serve is also shown in volleyball.
• Specialized: accuracy and control while doing skill.

Initiative vs Guilt

• Children develop a sense of self, usually by the end of year 2.
• Young children begin new activities but feel guilt when efforts result in failure or criticism.

Self - Understanding

• Child's representation of self
• Recognizing takes place around 18 months
• Children think of “self” as physical
• Often confuse body, self and mind

Moral Development

• Rules and regulation involving interactions with others
• Thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
• Thinking of right and wrong

Moral Identity

• Persons use of principles to define the self
• What a child thinks is the right thing to do
• Determines why a child takes a certain course of action

Components of Self

• Self-awareness
• Self-concept
• Self-control
• Self-esteem

Self Esteem

• Active process that is continues for a lifetime
• Begins in early childhood Authentic: positive, healthy, confident, balanced Negative: unhealthy, unbalanced, shaky foundation

Parts of Self Esteem

• Competence
• Control
• Worth

Developmental processes fall into three categories: biological, cognitive, and socioemotional. Biological processes involve physical changes, cognitive processes involve changes in thought, and socioemotional processes involve changes in relationships, emotions, and personality. Development occurs in periods such as prenatal and infancy.