Biological Classification & Binomial Nomenclature

• Biological classification and binomial nomenclature are essential for organizing and understanding the diversity of life.

Classification of Living Beings

• Classification is inherent to the human species
• Organizes in order to better study
• Classification criteria vary according to the classification schools in use

Traditional School

• Aristotle (384-322 BC) developed a traditional classification system.
• This system was based on divine creation and fixism.
• According to it, existing biodiversity was created by a divine being.
• Evolutionary change over time doesn't exist
• Kingdoms that were possible to observe according to his criteria: Vegetal and Animal
• Vegetable kingdoms contained fungi and plants
• Everything that moved belonged to the Animal kingdom
• Animals categorized by "with blood" and "without blood."

Natural History

• Natural History is based on Pliny's book "Natural History" (1st century AD).
• Naturalist figure arises from this
• Naturalists are students of natural sciences

Taxonomy

• Taxonomy is the classification of living beings within a system.
• Natural System
• Based on anatomical characteristics and degrees of similarity.
• Employs a Natural System, characterized by anatomical similarities and degrees of similarities.
• Carl von Linnée (1707-1778) contributed significantly
• Linnée's kingdoms according to the system: Vegetable, Animal and Mineral.
• Linnée adhered to creationism (fixist).

Taxonomic Categories

• Represents a hierarchical organization of living beings
• Linnaeus established five categories: Kingdom, Class, Order, Genus, and Species
• Currently, there are seven mandatory categories: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Binomial Nomenclature

• It was created by Linnaeus
• Each species name comprises two terms
• Generi epithet (or generic prename)
• Specific epithet.
• Species name equation: G + E = species name (e.g., Homo sapiens)
• Equasion for subspecies: G + E + S
• Names given are in Latin (dead language).
• Names are in Italics or underlined.
• The generic name is always capitalized.
• The specific epithet is always written in lowercase.
• The genus may be abbreviated after it has been mentioned.

Evolutionary School

• It arose following the publication of "On the Origin of Species" in 1859.
• States that Living beings are dynamic
• Species evolve over time & have common ancestors.
• Classification of living beings should be based on evolutionary relationships and kinship.
• Method lacks a clear method
• Characteristics are artificial

Phenetic School

• The Evolutionary history cannot be deciphered in 1950
• Classification based on similarities.
• Mathematics is used to establish the index of similarity between living things.
• Similarity in this school didn't had evolutionary significance.
• Characteristics are analogous
• Displays adaptive convergence

Cladistics and the Tree of Life

• It aims to visually represent the evolutionary relationships between organisms through diagrams.

Phylogenetic Systematics

• Willi Hennig developed it in 1966
• It is based on evolutionary principles
• It is to test hypotheses and establish evolutionary relationships among living beings.
• Groups that are formed by kinship relations with a common ancestor
• Shows evolutionary novelties
• Represented using a phylogenetic tree or cladogram.

Division of Life

• Lineu proposed it in 1735
• His division proposed the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms.
• Haeckel proposed it in 1866
• His division included the Protist Kingdom.
• Copeland proposed it in 1956.
• His division proposed the Monera Kingdom.
• Whittaker proposed the division in 1969
• Whittaker's division included 5 kingdoms
• In Whitaker's kingdom the Monera is an artificial group.
• Woese proposed the division in 1990.
• Bacteria ≠ Archaebacteria in this system

The Concept of Species

• Although it is the most used taxon, the species category is hard to define
• Biological concept of species, proposed by Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975) and Ernst Mayr (1904-2005), is one of the most accepted by the scientific community.
• Species consists of individuals capable of interbreeding and generating fertile offspring.
• Some different species can produce sterile hybrids.
• The biological concept is not applicable when referring to to groups of distinct plant species capable of producing fertile hybrids or in the case of organisms capable of reproducing asexually, such as bacteria.
• Examples of species that can produce sterile hybrids: a mare (Equus caballus) and a donkey (Equus asinus), which results in a donkey (male) and/or a mule (female). These animals derive from isolated reproduction to other groups with the same characteristics.

Speciation

• Speciation is the process that explains the diversity of living beings wasn't created a single time, it was created through successive events differentiating populations
• Sympatric
• Allopatric.
• Parapatric.
• Peripatric

Elements of a Cladogram

• Root: Ancestral lineage from which other branches start
• Nodes: The points where new lineages branch off.
• Branch: a new lineage

Cladograms

• Clades: A, B, C, ABC, and BC (ABC is the clade formed by the branches that emerge from the first node, and BC is the clade formed by the branches that emerge from the second node).
• The A clade is older than the BC clade, while clades and C have the same age.
• B is more closely related to C than to A, since B and C share an exclusive common ancestor (second node); B and C are therefore sister-groups.
• AB, AC are not clades because they do not share an exclusive common ancestor (they do not include all branches that depart from the same node);
• The BC clade is a sister-group of A because they share an exclusive common ancestor (first node).

Anagenesis X Cladogenesis X Speciation

• Anagenesis refers to the emergence of new characteristics.
• Cladogenesis refers to the division of a population into two or more groups.
• Speciation refers to the emergence of new species.
• Speciation = Cladogenesis + reproductive isolation over many generations

Artificial X Natural Groups

• Monophyletic all have a common ancestor
• Paraphyletic don't include all the descendants of a common ancestor
• Polyphyletic do not descend from a single ancestor

Characteristics, Generalities, and Phylogeny of Prokaryotes

• Study of the phylogenic of bacteria and prokaryotes

Characteristics of Bacteria and Archaea

• Cladogram shows relationship between the three domains of living beings
• Prokaryotes do not form a monophyletic group
• Both are prokaryotes, unicellular, without a nuclear membrane
• There is a lack of membranous organelles
• Monera Kingdom is paraphyletic
• Archaea are molecularly closer to eukaryotes.

Metabolism of Prokaryotes

• Autotrophs
• Photosynthesis
  • Cyanobacteria
• Chemosynthesis
  • Sulfobacteria
  • Nitrobacteria
• Heterotrophs Decomposers
  • Nutrient cycling
  • Parasites
  • Diseases and infections
• Symbionts
• Intestinal microbiota
• Breaks down cellulose in termites and ruminants
• Aerobic
• Obligate anaerobes
  • Oxygen causes organism death
  • Fermenters
• Facultative anaerobes
  • They can ferment in the absence of oxygen

Morphology of Prokaryotes

• Cocci
• Bacilli, Spirilla, and Vibrios
• Cocci are bacteria responsible for meningitis and pneumonia.
• Bacilli are bacteria that cause tuberculosis and lactobacilli.
• Spirilla are bacteria responsible for syphilis.
• Vibrios is the bacteria that causes cholera

Resistance Structures - Spores

• Produced by adverse environmental conditions
• Structures of resistance
• Metabolism is suspended until better conditions are found
• Bacteria of tetanus

Reproduction

• Asexual
• Binary fission (bipartition)
• Sexual
• Genetic recombination
  • Horizontal material transfer
• Transformation
  • Incorporates genetic material from the environment (used in biotechnology)
• Transduction
  • The bacteriophage virus transfers genetic material from one cell to another.
• Conjugation
• The bacteria duplicates its plasmid and transfers it to another cell through a sexual pili (cytoplasmic bridge)

Antibiotics

• These are medicines that combat infections in bacteria
• Collection of substances capable of killing or preventing reproduction of these infections
• Resistance against antibiotics
• The cell wall prevents the substance from entering the cells.
  • Gram-positive vs. Gram-negative.
• Resistance Genes (enzymes that break down a substance).

Diversity and Phylogeny - Bacteria

• Cell wall with murein
• Proteobacteria
• the largest group
• gonorrhea and cholera
• nitrogen-fixing bacteria
• Spirochetes
• Syphilis and leptospirosis
• Chlamydia
• Obligate intracellular cocci

Diversity and Phylogeny of Bacteria

• Gram-positive bacteria
• Lack external membrane to the cell wall
• Lactic fermentation (Lactobacillus sp.)
  • Tetanus, botulism, and hospital infections
• Cyanobacteria
  • Chlorophyll a and phycocyanins (blue)
  • Probably the oldest oxygen producers.
  • Stromatolites

Domain Archaea

• Extemophiles and Ubiquitous
• Groups belonging to Domínio Archaea: Korarqueas, Euriarqueas, Crenarqueas, and Nanoarqueas
• Korarqueas
  • Pyrococcus furiosus
  • Euriarqueas
    • Methanogenic
    • Anaerobic obligatories
  • Crenarqueas
  • Thermophilic chemosynthetics (S)
• volcano cracks
• Nanoarqueas
• Intracellular parasites
• volcano cracks

Bacterioses

• Study of bacteria and diseases caused by bacteria: Tuberculosis, leprosy, botulism, cholera, plague bubonic, spotted fever, leptospirosis, syphilis, or gonorrhea

Tuberculosis

• Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
• Koch's bacillus.
• High mortality rate.
• 85,000 new cases per year (Ministry of Health).
• Presence of myolinic acid in cellular wall
• Impermeable to Gram staining.
• BCG vaccine
• It's is treatable with antibiotics such as isoniazida + Rifampicina + Pirazinamida + etambutol (2 months) Then Isoniazida + Rifampicina for 4 months

Hanseniasis (leprae)

• Mycobacterium leprae is the infectious agent.
• Hansen's bacillus.
• It cannot be cultivated in the laboratory.
• Presents a long incubation period
• from 1 to 7 years
• Exhibits high levels of lipids on the walls.
• Is impermeable to Gram staining
• Treatable with BCG Vaccine and Antibiotics such as Rifampicina, dapsona e clofazimina

Botulism

• Due to Clostridium botulinum
• Gram-positive
• Nature spreads the spoils largely.
• Anaerobic bacteria that produces neuroparalystic toxin
• Common in overinflated canned foods
• Embutidos from unknown proceedings
• Vessels with liquid mud
• BOTOX

Cholera

• Caused by Vibrio cholerae.
• Cholera vibrio.
• Gram-negative
• Short incubation period
  • 2 days.
• Produces Osmotic diarrhea
• Prevented through sanitation, drinkable water and boiling ingredients
• Treatable with Fluoroquinolone and tetracyclines

Bubonic plague (black plague)

• Caused by Yersinia pestis
• Gram negative.
• Transmitted by flea bites.
• There are painful, swollen regions with Pest buboes.
• Prevented through sanitation basics, elimination of vectors( rats)
• Can be cured by Estreptomicina, gentamicina e doxiciclina

Spotted Fever

• Rickettsia rickettsia is the cause.
• Gram-negative.
• Carrapato-estrela is the vector
• Prevalent in rural areas.
• 70% mortality rate.
• Preventable by avoiding to walk infested areas of the vector
• Cured with Doxicilina and cloranfenicol

Leptospirosis

• Leptospira interrogans is the infectious agent.
• Grame-negative
• Infected animal urine, and infected water are the cause
  • Rodents
• Renal insufficiency
• Sanitation can prevent
• Most cases solve themselves and will cure alone
  • Doxycicline, azitromicine

Syphilis

• Treponema pallidum is the infective agent
• It cannot be color stained by Gram staining
• Is Sexually transmitted
• Exhibit 4 infection steps
• Is to be care on pregnancy
• Penicilin, tetraciclin and doxicicline heals the disease

Syphilies Steps

• SÍFILIS PRIMÁRIA-is a Primal Syphillis skin step, the wound is in the reproductive or sexual part
• SÍFILIS PRIMÁRIA-is a There can be skin wounds around the reproductive skin, around a month.
• SÍFILIS TERCIÁRIA-is a
• Third step can take to a year. There is destruction of tissue, the neural tissue is destroyed as well

Gonorrhea

• Caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae
• • Gonococos
• It is sexual transmissible infectious disease
• Has Gram-negatives
• High resistance to antibiotics
• Use contraceptives
• Cephalosporin