Hand made Outline Question Set for Exam 3

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Questions and Answers

What type of bonds do peptidases hydrolyze?

Covalent bonds

Hydrogen bonds

Peptide bonds (correct)

Ionic bonds

What type of bonds do nucleases break down?

Peptide bonds

Glycosidic bonds

Nucleic bonds (correct)

Hydrogen bonds

What is the alkaline pH that the small intestine must maintain?

7.5-8.5 (correct)

6.0-7.0

8.0-9.0

7.0-8.0

Bicarbonate ions are secreted by the ____ into the duodenum?

Pancreas Signup and view all the answers

Blood capillaries absorb what?

Amino acid sugars Signup and view all the answers

Regarding movement in the small intestine, what process creates propulsion?

Peristalsis Signup and view all the answers

Regarding movement in the small intestine, what process creates a mixing effect?

Segmental contractions Signup and view all the answers

Regarding movement in the small intestine, what relaxes to allow chyme to move into the cecum?

Ileocecal sphincter Signup and view all the answers

Regarding movement in the small intestine, what causes local reflexes that make the ileocecal valve constrict?

Cecal Distention Signup and view all the answers

What are carbohydrates broken down into?

Simple sugars, mainly glucose Signup and view all the answers

What enzymes are involved in the breakdown of proteins?

Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase Signup and view all the answers

What are trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase secreted by?

Pancreas Signup and view all the answers

What enzyme breaks down emulsified fats into fatty acids and monoglycerides?

Pancreatic lipase Signup and view all the answers

What does the large intestine consist of?

Cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal Signup and view all the answers

In regards to the motility of the large intestine, what process pushes feces into the rectum?

Mass movements Signup and view all the answers

Mass movements are integrated by what nerve system?

Enteric plexus Signup and view all the answers

What initiates the gastrocolic reflex?

Distention of the stomach Signup and view all the answers

What initiates the duodenocolic reflex?

Distention of the duodenum Signup and view all the answers

In regards to bacteria in the large intestine, what do they help produce?

Acid, gases, and vitamin K Signup and view all the answers

The defecation reflex is innervated by what branch of the nervous system?

Parasympathetic Signup and view all the answers

What is the voluntary action that can generate a defecation reflex?

Valsalva maneuver Signup and view all the answers

What secondary effect does the Valsalva maneuver have?

Decreased heart rate Signup and view all the answers

The internal anal sphincter is controlled by what nervous system?

Autonomic nervous system Signup and view all the answers

When the rectum is full, what relaxes and continues the defecation process?

Internal Anal Sphincter Signup and view all the answers

The external anal sphincter is controlled by what nervous system?

Somatic Signup and view all the answers

The process by which the body obtains and uses certain components for food is called?

Nutrition Signup and view all the answers

What nutrients are needed in large amounts?

Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, water Signup and view all the answers

What nutrients are needed in small amounts?

Vitamins, Minerals Signup and view all the answers

What are the components of plasma membranes that can be modified to form bile salts and steroids?

Cholesterol Signup and view all the answers

What is part of the plasma membrane and is used to construct the myelin sheath?

Phospholipids Signup and view all the answers

What has one or more double covalent bonds between the carbon atoms of their fatty acids?

Unsaturated fats and oils Signup and view all the answers

What type of fat has one double bond?

Monounsaturated Signup and view all the answers

What type of fat has two or more double bonds?

Polyunsaturated Signup and view all the answers

What type of amino acid can the body synthesize?

Nonessential Signup and view all the answers

What kind of proteins contain all the necessary amino acids?

Complete proteins Signup and view all the answers

What are organic molecules that exist in minute quantities in food?

Vitamins Signup and view all the answers

Which vitamins are lipid soluble and can be stored in fatty tissue (to the point of toxicity)?

A, D, E, K Signup and view all the answers

Which vitamins are water-soluble and therefore are not stored in the body for long periods before being excreted?

Vitamins B and C, and all others Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are two functions of minerals? (Select all that apply)

Add strength to bones and teeth, act as buffers Signup and view all the answers

What is the daily requirement for major minerals?

100mg or more Signup and view all the answers

What is an energy-releasing process where large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules?

Catabolism Signup and view all the answers

What is an energy-requiring process where small molecules are joined to form large molecules?

Anabolism Signup and view all the answers

What is broken down into monosaccharides such as glucose, which are subsequently broken down further to produce ATP?

Carbohydrates Signup and view all the answers

What is broken down into fatty acids and glycerol, which then can enter a pathway similar to the pathway which carbohydrates generate ATP?

Lipids (triglycerides) Signup and view all the answers

What is digested into amino acids, which enter a pathway to be broken down further to generate ATP?

Proteins Signup and view all the answers

What is the process described by the following steps? 1. Blood glucose levels spike, stimulating the release of insulin from the blood into cells. 2. Glucose is converted to glucose-6-phosphate upon entering cells. 3. Glucose-6-phosphate continues to glycolysis to produce ATP.

Glycogenesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the process called that involves the formation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate from glucose, conversion to glycerol, and the combination of glycerol with fatty acid chains to form triglycerides?

Lipogenesis Signup and view all the answers

What process occurs when glycogen stores are filled?

Lipogenesis Signup and view all the answers

What process occurs when blood glucose levels decrease?

Glycogenolysis Signup and view all the answers

What is the product of carbohydrate digestion?

Monosaccharides Signup and view all the answers

What is the first part of carbohydrate metabolism?

Glycolysis Signup and view all the answers

These are the major steps for what process? 1. The input of ATP: 2 ATP is used to make glucose more reactive in a process called phosphorylation; 2. Sugar cleavage: fructose-1,6-biphosphate is cleaved into 2 3-carbon molecules; 3. NADH production (electron carrier molecule); 4. ATP and pyruvate production.

Glycolysis Signup and view all the answers

What are the final products from one glucose molecule in glycolysis?

Net 2 ATP, 2 Pyruvate Signup and view all the answers

What is the breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen?

Fermentation (anabolic respiration) Signup and view all the answers

The following steps describe a process: 1. Glycolysis: Glucose undergoes several reactions to produce two pyruvate molecules and two NADH, with a net gain of two ATP molecules. 2. Lactate formation: Pyruvate is converted into lactic acid, a reaction that requires energy from NADH produced in glycolysis. What is this process?

Fermentation (anaerobic respiration) Signup and view all the answers

What is the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and 32 ATP molecules?

Aerobic respiration Signup and view all the answers

What process contains these 4 phases in order: Glycolysis, Acetyl-CoA formation, Citric acid cycle, Electron-transport chain?

Aerobic respiration Signup and view all the answers

The two pyruvate molecules produced in glycolysis are converted to two acetyl-CoA molecules, producing CO2 and NADH. This is what part of aerobic respiration?

Acetyl-CoA formation Signup and view all the answers

What does the citric acid cycle produce?

four CO2, six NADH, two FADH2, and two ATP Signup and view all the answers

What process begins with the product of citric acid?

Citric Acid cycle Signup and view all the answers

What is the citric acid cycle also known as?

Krebs Cycle Signup and view all the answers

At the inner mitochondrial membrane, the electron transport chain uses NADH and FADH2 to produce 28 ATP while combining with H+ to form H2O. What is this process called?

Electron transport chain Signup and view all the answers

What is the process that ATP synthase couples the movement of protons down the gradient to form ATP called?

Chemiosmosis Signup and view all the answers

What is broken down and released as free fatty acids?

Triglycerides Signup and view all the answers

How are free fatty acids processed by cells?

Broken down by beta-oxidation into acetyl-CoA Signup and view all the answers

What is acetyl-CoA's role in fatty acid metabolism?

It enters the citric acid cycle or undergoes ketogenesis Signup and view all the answers

During beta-oxidation, how many carbon atoms are removed from the end of a fatty acid chain to form acetyl-CoA?

Two Signup and view all the answers

Where does ketogenesis primarily occur?

In the liver Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of ketone bodies in skeletal muscle?

They are used in the citric acid cycle to produce ATP Signup and view all the answers

What can ketosis lead to if ketone bodies are produced in excess?

Acidosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary use of amino acids in the body?

Synthesis of proteins Signup and view all the answers

How are amino acids stored in the body?

They are not stored in the body Signup and view all the answers

How are non-essential amino acids formed?

Through transamination, transferring an amine group to a keto acid Signup and view all the answers

What process do amino acids undergo when used for energy?

Oxidative deamination Signup and view all the answers

What are the by-products of oxidative deamination?

Ammonia and ketoacids Signup and view all the answers

What happens to ammonia produced during oxidative deamination?

It is converted to urea and excreted Signup and view all the answers

Where does glycolysis occur in the cell?

Cytoplasm Signup and view all the answers

Glycolysis consists of 10 separate reactions. After the last reaction occurs, glucose has been broken down into two identical smaller molecules. What is the name of these molecules?

Pyruvate Signup and view all the answers

What are the three final products of glycolysis, including the net total of each?

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Signup and view all the answers

How many molecules of NADH are produced by the conversion of two pyruvate molecules into two molecules of acetyl-CoA?

Two Signup and view all the answers

During acetyl-CoA formation, each pyruvate is modified and eventually becomes a 2-carbon acetyl group. What enzyme is then added to each to form acetyl-CoA?

pyruvate dehydrogenase Signup and view all the answers

What gas is released during acetyl-CoA formation?

Carbon Dioxide Signup and view all the answers

After two acetyl-CoA molecules enter the citric acid cycle, how many FADH2 molecules are made?

2 Signup and view all the answers

After two acetyl-CoA molecules enter the citric acid cycle, how many carbon dioxide molecules are produced?

4 Signup and view all the answers

Where does the citric acid cycle take place within the mitochondria?

The matrix Signup and view all the answers

After two acetyl-CoA molecules enter the citric acid cycle, how many NADH molecules are produced?

6 Signup and view all the answers

After two acetyl-CoA molecules enter the citric acid cycle, how many ATP molecules are produced?

2 Signup and view all the answers

What molecule is formed in the first step of the citric acid cycle when acetyl Co-A reacts with oxaloacetic acid?

citric acid Signup and view all the answers

To get back to the mitochondrial matrix, H+ has to use a protein channel. What is the name of this channel?

ATP Synthase Signup and view all the answers

In the electron transport chain, where does the energy come from that allows the proton pumps to move H+ across the inner mitochondrial membrane?

NADH and FADH2 Signup and view all the answers

What is responsible for producing ATP in the electron transport chain?

ATP Synthase Signup and view all the answers

In the electron transport chain, three of the electron carriers also act as proton pumps. These pumps move H+ from the mitochondrial matrix to the ___________________ of the mitochondria.

Intermembrane space Signup and view all the answers

In the electron transport chain, what is transferred from NADH and FADH2 to electron-transport carriers that are associated with the protein complexes?

electrons Signup and view all the answers

How many protein complexes are found in the electron transport chain?

Four Signup and view all the answers

During the electron transport chain, NADH and FADH2 release electrons and _______________ in the mitochondrial matrix.

protons Signup and view all the answers

As H+ diffuses through ATP synthase, energy is released which allows ATP synthase to produce ATP. What is the name of this process?

Chemiosmosis Signup and view all the answers

Which phase of aerobic respiration makes the most ATP?

Electron transport chain Signup and view all the answers

Which phase of aerobic respiration makes the most NADH?

Citric acid cycle Signup and view all the answers

Which phase of aerobic respiration makes the most NADH?

Citric acid cycle Signup and view all the answers

How many ATP (net total) are produced by one glucose molecule during aerobic respiration?

36-38 Signup and view all the answers

What two plexi are part of the enteric nervous system?

Submucosal and myenteric Signup and view all the answers

What inhibits digestive tract motility and secretions?

Norepinephrine Signup and view all the answers

What stimulates digestive tract motility and secretions?

Acetylcholine Signup and view all the answers

What is the posterior boundary of the oral cavity called?

Fauces Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of teeth?

Aiding in digestion by breaking down food Signup and view all the answers

How many teeth do adults normally have, and how are they distributed?

32 teeth, between two dental arches (maxillary and mandibular) Signup and view all the answers

Which teeth are commonly referred to as 'wisdom teeth'?

Third molars Signup and view all the answers

At what age do deciduous (primary) teeth typically begin to appear?

6 to 24 months Signup and view all the answers

When does the replacement of deciduous teeth with permanent teeth usually start and end?

Starts around age 5 and completes by age 11 Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the tooth is covered by enamel?

Crown Signup and view all the answers

What is the largest region of the tooth that anchors it in the bone?

Root canal Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the pulp cavity within the tooth?

It contains blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue. Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the hole where nerves and blood vessels enter and exit the pulp of a tooth?

Apical foramen Signup and view all the answers

What type of tissue is dentin, and where is it located?

A living, calcified tissue surrounding the pulp cavity Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of enamel?

It is a hard, nonliving substance that surrounds the dentin. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of cementum in the tooth structure?

It helps anchor the tooth to the periodontal ligament. Signup and view all the answers

Where are teeth anchored within the jaw?

In the alveoli Signup and view all the answers

What tissue covers the alveolar processes in the mouth?

Gingiva Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of periodontal ligaments?

They secure the teeth in the alveoli. Signup and view all the answers

What is the largest organ in the body by weight?

Liver Signup and view all the answers

How many lobes does the liver have?

Four Signup and view all the answers

Which ligament separates the two major lobes of the liver?

Falciform ligament Signup and view all the answers

What are the two minor lobes of the liver?

Caudate and quadrate lobes Signup and view all the answers

The porta hepatis is located on which surface of the liver?

Inferior Signup and view all the answers

Which vessels enter the liver through the porta hepatis?

Hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery, and hepatic nerve plexus Signup and view all the answers

Which vessels exit the liver through the porta hepatis?

Common hepatic duct and bile duct Signup and view all the answers

What forms the common hepatic duct?

Union of the left and right hepatic ducts Signup and view all the answers

Where does the cystic duct originate?

Gallbladder Signup and view all the answers

The common bile duct is formed by the union of which two structures?

Cystic duct and common hepatic duct Signup and view all the answers

Hepatic cords are composed of what type of cells?

Hepatocytes Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a function of hepatocytes?

Blood filtration Signup and view all the answers

During the cephalic phase of stomach secretion, what first stimulates the medulla oblongata?

The taste, smell, or thought of food, or the tactile sensation of food in the mouth Signup and view all the answers

Which nerves carry parasympathetic action potentials to the stomach, activating the enteric plexus?

Vagus nerves Signup and view all the answers

In the cephalic phase, what is stimulated by postganglionic neurons in the stomach?

Secretions by parietal and chief cells, and secretion of gastrin and histamine by endocrine cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of gastrin during the cephalic phase?

It stimulates secretion in the stomach, along with histamine. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following inhibits gastric secretions when chyme with a pH less than 2 or containing lipids enters the duodenum?

Three mechanisms involving local reflexes, sensory input to the medulla, and hormone release Signup and view all the answers

What sensory input to the medulla from the duodenum causes inhibition of gastric secretion?

Sensory input from the duodenum inhibiting motor input from the medulla Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of local reflexes in the intestinal phase of stomach regulation?

They inhibit gastric secretion. Signup and view all the answers

Which hormones produced by the duodenum decrease gastric secretions in the stomach?

Secretin and cholecystokinin Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Free Fatty Acid Metabolism

Free fatty acids are broken down by beta-oxidation into acetyl-CoA, which can then enter the citric acid cycle or undergo ketogenesis.
Beta-oxidation removes two carbon atoms from the end of a fatty acid chain per cycle, producing acetyl-CoA.

Ketogenesis

Ketogenesis primarily occurs in the liver.
Ketone bodies are used by skeletal muscle to produce ATP via the citric acid cycle.
Excess ketone bodies can lead to acidosis, a condition where the body becomes overly acidic.

Protein Metabolism

Amino acids are primarily used to synthesize proteins.
Non-essential amino acids can be formed through transamination, a process that transfers an amine group to a keto acid.
Amino acids can be used for energy through oxidative deamination which produces ammonia and ketoacids.
Ammonia produced during oxidative deamination is converted into urea and excreted from the body.

Teeth Functions and Structure

Teeth are primarily used for breaking down food, aiding in digestion, and assisting in speech.
Adults typically have 32 teeth, distributed between the upper and lower jaw.
The third molars are commonly referred to as "wisdom teeth."
Deciduous teeth begin to appear around 6 to 24 months of age.
Permanent teeth replace deciduous teeth and the process usually starts around age 5 and ends by age 11.
Enamel, the outermost layer of the tooth, covers the crown and protects the tooth.
The root is the largest region of the tooth that anchors it to the bone.
The pulp cavity contains blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue.
The apical foramen is the hole where nerves and blood vessels enter and exit the pulp of a tooth.
Dentin, a living, calcified tissue surrounding the pulp cavity, provides support and structure.
Cementum anchors the tooth to the periodontal ligament.
Teeth are anchored within the alveoli, which are socket-like cavities in the jaw bones.
Gingiva, also known as gums, covers alveolar processes in the mouth.
Periodontal ligaments, found in the alveoli, help to secure the teeth in place.

Liver Anatomy and Function

The liver is the largest organ in the body by weight.
The liver has two major lobes (right and left) and two minor lobes (caudate and quadrate).
The falciform ligament separates the right and left lobes of the liver.
The porta hepatis is located on the inferior surface of the liver.
The hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery, and hepatic nerve plexus enter the liver through the porta hepatis.
The common hepatic duct, formed by the union of the right and left hepatic ducts, exits the liver via the porta hepatis.
The cystic duct originates from the gallbladder.
The common bile duct is formed by the union of the cystic duct and the common hepatic duct.
Hepatic cords are composed of hepatocytes.
Hepatocytes perform several crucial functions, including bile production, detoxification, blood filtration, storage, and interconversion of nutrients.

Stomach Secretion Phases

The cephalic phase of stomach secretion is stimulated by the taste, smell, or thought of food, or touching food in the mouth, which triggers the medulla oblongata.
The vagus nerves carry parasympathetic action potentials to the stomach, activating the enteric plexus.
During the cephalic phase, postganglionic neurons in the stomach stimulate parietal and chief cells to secrete gastric juices, as well as gastrin and histamine.
Gastrin, a hormone, stimulates both parietal and chief cells, increasing stomach secretions.
The intestinal phase of stomach regulation involves three mechanisms to inhibit gastric secretion: local reflexes, sensory input to the medulla, and hormone release.
Sensory input from the duodenum involving local reflexes decreases motor input from the medulla, also inhibiting gastric secretion.
Secretin and cholecystokinin, hormones produced by the duodenum, inhibit gastric secretions in the stomach.

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Description

This quiz focuses on the types of bonds hydrolyzed by peptidases. Test your understanding of these important enzymes and their role in protein digestion. Ideal for students studying biochemistry or molecular biology.