Biochemistry Chapter on Sugars and Amino Acids

A large carbohydrate molecule made of many monosaccharide units linked together.

Polysaccharides that have straight chains of sugar molecules.

Polysaccharides that have branched chains of sugar molecules with multiple offshoots.

The storage form of glucose in plants, consisting of amylose (linear) and amylopectin (branched).

A linear, unbranched chain of glucose molecules linked by (1,4) glycosidic bonds. It is a component of starch.

Monosaccharides where one or more hydroxyl groups (-OH) have been replaced by hydrogen atoms (-H), making the sugar 'deoxygenated'.

A branched polymer of glucose molecules with both (1,4) and (1,6) glycosidic bonds. It is a component of starch.

The storage form of glucose in animals, similar to amylopectin but more highly branched. It is abundant in liver and muscle cells.

The primary deoxysugar found in DNA. It differs from ribose by having a hydrogen atom instead of a hydroxyl group at the C2 position.

A structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls. It consists of linear chains of glucose linked by β(1,4) glycosidic bonds, making it indigestible by humans.

The covalent bond that links monosaccharide molecules together to form disaccharides and larger carbohydrates.

A disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose. It's commonly known as table sugar.

A disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose. It's the sugar found in milk.

Short chains of 3 to 10 monosaccharides linked together. They play roles in cell recognition, signaling, and structure.

Oligosaccharides linked to the nitrogen atom of the amino acid asparagine in proteins.

Oligosaccharides linked to the oxygen atom of the hydroxyl group of serine or threonine amino acids in proteins.

Metal ions play an active role in the catalytic process. They might stabilize negative charges, activate water molecules, or act as electrophilic catalysts.

Metal ions can help position the molecules reacting in the right way, like a guide ensuring they fit perfectly for the reaction to occur.

Metal ions like Zn²⁺ or Mg²⁺ stabilize the negative charges of intermediate molecules during a chemical reaction.

Enzymatic reaction where glycine adds to gamma-glutamylcysteine, forming glutathione (GSH).

Metal ions can enhance the ability of water molecules to participate in reactions, making them more reactive.

The enzyme carbonic anhydrase utilizes zinc (Zn²⁺) ion to activate water, turning carbon dioxide into bicarbonate.

Enzyme located on the plasma membrane that transfers the gamma-glutamyl group from glutathione to an amino acid for transport into the cell.

Amino acids that can be made by the body are called nonessential amino acids.

Break down of cysteinylglycine into cysteine and glycine, which recycle for glutathione production.

Proteins containing sufficient amounts of all essential amino acids are considered complete proteins.

Complex formed by GGT that allows amino acids to enter the cell.

Plant proteins may lack one or more essential amino acids, so they are not complete proteins.

Enzyme that breaks the bond in the gamma-glutamyl-amino acid complex, releasing the free amino acid and producing 5-oxoproline.

The pathway of converting 5-oxoproline back to glutamate.

Enzymes that transfer an amino group from an amino acid to an alpha-keto acid.

Process involving the removal of an amino group from an amino acid, generating ammonia as a byproduct.

The primary enzyme responsible for adding UDP-glucose units to the growing glycogen chain, building the glycogen molecule.

This type of glucose transporter is found in liver cells and allows glucose to enter freely, depending on blood glucose levels.

A branching enzyme introduces branches in the glycogen molecule, increasing its solubility and making it easier to mobilize glucose quickly.

This enzyme converts glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) into glucose-1-phosphate (G1P), a crucial step in glycogen synthesis.

This type of glucose transporter is found in muscle cells and is insulin-dependent, allowing glucose uptake after meals.

The process of breaking down glycogen into glucose, releasing it into the bloodstream.

A metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondria, breaking down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA. It involves a series of four enzymatic steps: oxidation, hydration, oxidation, and thiolysis.

A molecule that enters the Krebs cycle and is produced from the breakdown of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and some amino acids.

A metabolic process that occurs in the liver, converting excess acetyl-CoA into ketone bodies (acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone) during periods of prolonged fasting or low carbohydrate intake.

Specialized molecules that are produced during ketogenesis and can be used as an energy source by certain organs, particularly the brain during fasting.

A metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm and requires energy for fatty acid synthesis. The process utilizes acetyl-CoA as the starting material and NADPH as the reducing power.

An important coenzyme required for the reduction reactions in fatty acid synthesis. It acts as a reducing agent, providing electrons for the conversion of molecules.

A metabolic process that occurs in the pentose phosphate pathway and provides NADPH for fatty acid synthesis.

A metabolic process that converts malate into pyruvate, yielding NADPH for fatty acid synthesis.