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Questions and Answers
What is the primary source of energy used by cells in glycolysis?
What is the primary source of energy used by cells in glycolysis?
- Amino acids
- Glycerol
- Glucose (correct)
- Fatty acids
Which component of red blood cells is involved in transporting bicarbonate ions?
Which component of red blood cells is involved in transporting bicarbonate ions?
- Cl−/HCO3− antiporter (correct)
- ATP synthase
- Calcium channel
- Na+/K+ pump
What does erythrocytosis indicate?
What does erythrocytosis indicate?
- Reduced oxygen-carrying capacity
- Increased hematocrit (correct)
- Abnormal red blood cell shapes
- Decreased hemoglobin levels
What percentage of glucose is used in the HMP shunt?
What percentage of glucose is used in the HMP shunt?
What term describes the presence of red blood cells of varying sizes?
What term describes the presence of red blood cells of varying sizes?
What role does the bicarbonate ion play in red blood cells?
What role does the bicarbonate ion play in red blood cells?
What is the primary function of the Cl−/HCO3− antiporter in red blood cells?
What is the primary function of the Cl−/HCO3− antiporter in red blood cells?
What is the correct interpretation of increased hematocrit in a blood test?
What is the correct interpretation of increased hematocrit in a blood test?
What activates macrophages?
What activates macrophages?
What happens when Lipid A binds to the CD14 receptor on macrophages?
What happens when Lipid A binds to the CD14 receptor on macrophages?
Which characteristic describes macrophages in granulomas?
Which characteristic describes macrophages in granulomas?
What is the potential consequence of an overactive immune response due to Lipid A?
What is the potential consequence of an overactive immune response due to Lipid A?
Which type of macrophage is primarily found in the liver?
Which type of macrophage is primarily found in the liver?
In what way can macrophages function relative to MHC II?
In what way can macrophages function relative to MHC II?
Which of the following describes septic shock?
Which of the following describes septic shock?
What role do pro-inflammatory cytokines play in the immune response?
What role do pro-inflammatory cytokines play in the immune response?
What is a key role of macrophages in the context of sepsis?
What is a key role of macrophages in the context of sepsis?
Which type of macrophage is located in connective tissue?
Which type of macrophage is located in connective tissue?
Why is the response triggered by Lipid A necessary in fighting infections?
Why is the response triggered by Lipid A necessary in fighting infections?
Which feature correctly identifies activated macrophages?
Which feature correctly identifies activated macrophages?
What can excessive release of pro-inflammatory cytokines result in?
What can excessive release of pro-inflammatory cytokines result in?
Which outcome is linked to severe inflammation caused by an active immune response?
Which outcome is linked to severe inflammation caused by an active immune response?
What is the role of osteoclasts?
What is the role of osteoclasts?
Which statement about microglial cells is correct?
Which statement about microglial cells is correct?
What can be an underlying effect of a balanced immune response?
What can be an underlying effect of a balanced immune response?
What is the main benefit of macrophages releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines upon activation?
What is the main benefit of macrophages releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines upon activation?
What characterizes the interaction between macrophages and Lipid A?
What characterizes the interaction between macrophages and Lipid A?
How does an overactive immune response compromise health?
How does an overactive immune response compromise health?
What is the primary role of dendritic cells in the immune system?
What is the primary role of dendritic cells in the immune system?
What type of infections do eosinophils primarily defend against?
What type of infections do eosinophils primarily defend against?
Which of the following characteristics is NOT associated with dendritic cells?
Which of the following characteristics is NOT associated with dendritic cells?
How do dendritic cells present exogenous antigens?
How do dendritic cells present exogenous antigens?
Which characteristic distinguishes neutrophils from eosinophils?
Which characteristic distinguishes neutrophils from eosinophils?
What is the primary function of basophils in the immune response?
What is the primary function of basophils in the immune response?
In addition to antigen presentation, what other capability do dendritic cells have?
In addition to antigen presentation, what other capability do dendritic cells have?
What receptors do dendritic cells express on their surface?
What receptors do dendritic cells express on their surface?
Which type of granules are densely packed in basophils?
Which type of granules are densely packed in basophils?
What is a notable characteristic of the granules found in eosinophils?
What is a notable characteristic of the granules found in eosinophils?
Which enzyme is NOT found in neutrophils?
Which enzyme is NOT found in neutrophils?
Which role does lactoferrin play in neutrophils?
Which role does lactoferrin play in neutrophils?
What substance do basophils release to promote vasodilation?
What substance do basophils release to promote vasodilation?
Which type of leukocyte is primarily involved in phagocytosis?
Which type of leukocyte is primarily involved in phagocytosis?
What is the primary role of eosinophils in relation to antigen-antibody complexes?
What is the primary role of eosinophils in relation to antigen-antibody complexes?
What does poikilocytosis refer to in blood smears?
What does poikilocytosis refer to in blood smears?
What indicates reticulocyte immaturity in blood?
What indicates reticulocyte immaturity in blood?
What is demonstrated by the bluish color (polychromasia) of reticulocytes on a Wright-Giemsa stain?
What is demonstrated by the bluish color (polychromasia) of reticulocytes on a Wright-Giemsa stain?
What process do monocytes undergo when they enter tissues?
What process do monocytes undergo when they enter tissues?
What is the primary characteristic of reticulocytes?
What is the primary characteristic of reticulocytes?
What can an increase in reticulocytes indicate?
What can an increase in reticulocytes indicate?
Which feature correctly identifies reticulocytes compared to mature red blood cells?
Which feature correctly identifies reticulocytes compared to mature red blood cells?
What is suggested by the presence of polychromasia in a blood smear?
What is suggested by the presence of polychromasia in a blood smear?
What is the main function of the Golgi apparatus in plasma cells?
What is the main function of the Golgi apparatus in plasma cells?
Where are plasma cells predominantly found in the body?
Where are plasma cells predominantly found in the body?
What feature is often used to illustrate the Golgi apparatus in cell diagrams?
What feature is often used to illustrate the Golgi apparatus in cell diagrams?
Which of the following statements is true regarding plasma cells?
Which of the following statements is true regarding plasma cells?
What characterizes the Golgi apparatus in plasma cells?
What characterizes the Golgi apparatus in plasma cells?
What type of cells primarily do not circulate in peripheral blood?
What type of cells primarily do not circulate in peripheral blood?
Why is the Golgi apparatus significant in the immune response?
Why is the Golgi apparatus significant in the immune response?
In which cellular structure is the Golgi apparatus highlighted as a key feature?
In which cellular structure is the Golgi apparatus highlighted as a key feature?
What is one of the key processes facilitated by the Golgi apparatus in plasma cells?
What is one of the key processes facilitated by the Golgi apparatus in plasma cells?
What is a primary distinguishing feature of plasma cells compared to other immune cells?
What is a primary distinguishing feature of plasma cells compared to other immune cells?
What is indicated by the presence of increased neutrophil precursors in peripheral blood?
What is indicated by the presence of increased neutrophil precursors in peripheral blood?
What is a common feature of a leukoerythroblastic reaction accompanied by immature RBCs?
What is a common feature of a leukoerythroblastic reaction accompanied by immature RBCs?
What does a left shift in white blood cell differential typically suggest?
What does a left shift in white blood cell differential typically suggest?
What does an increase of band cells in peripheral blood imply?
What does an increase of band cells in peripheral blood imply?
What is a potential underlying cause of a left shift where immature neutrophils are present?
What is a potential underlying cause of a left shift where immature neutrophils are present?
What is the primary role of platelets in hemostasis?
What is the primary role of platelets in hemostasis?
Which hormone is responsible for stimulating megakaryocyte proliferation?
Which hormone is responsible for stimulating megakaryocyte proliferation?
What condition results from thrombocytopenia or decreased platelet function?
What condition results from thrombocytopenia or decreased platelet function?
What characteristic describes the shape of platelets?
What characteristic describes the shape of platelets?
Which of the following statements correctly describes megakaryocytes?
Which of the following statements correctly describes megakaryocytes?
What is a consequence of decreased platelet function?
What is a consequence of decreased platelet function?
Which process is essential for the formation of new megakaryocytes?
Which process is essential for the formation of new megakaryocytes?
What condition can lead to the appearance of petechiae on the skin?
What condition can lead to the appearance of petechiae on the skin?
What is the main cellular origin of platelets?
What is the main cellular origin of platelets?
In what way do platelets contribute to hemostasis?
In what way do platelets contribute to hemostasis?
What is the main effect of Lipid A binding to the CD14 receptor on macrophages?
What is the main effect of Lipid A binding to the CD14 receptor on macrophages?
Why is the immune response triggered by Lipid A considered crucial?
Why is the immune response triggered by Lipid A considered crucial?
What serious condition can result from an overactive immune response due to Lipid A?
What serious condition can result from an overactive immune response due to Lipid A?
Which statement best describes the outcomes of excessive pro-inflammatory cytokine release?
Which statement best describes the outcomes of excessive pro-inflammatory cytokine release?
What characterizes septic shock?
What characterizes septic shock?
How does the activation of macrophages affect the immune response?
How does the activation of macrophages affect the immune response?
What is a potential negative consequence of a hyperactive immune response?
What is a potential negative consequence of a hyperactive immune response?
In what way can an overactive immune response impact blood pressure?
In what way can an overactive immune response impact blood pressure?
Which of the following best explains the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines?
Which of the following best explains the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines?
What happens when inflammation becomes widespread as a result of an overactive immune response?
What happens when inflammation becomes widespread as a result of an overactive immune response?
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Study Notes
Energy Source in Red Blood Cells
- Glucose serves as the primary energy source, with 90% utilized in glycolysis and 10% in the hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt.
- Membranes of red blood cells (RBCs) contain a Cl−/HCO3 − antiporter facilitating the export of HCO3 − and the transport of CO2 to the lungs for elimination.
Key Terminology
- Erythrocytosis, also known as polycythemia, refers to an increased hematocrit (Hct).
- Anisocytosis indicates the presence of varying sizes of cells.
Immune Cell Functions
- RBCs can act as antigen-presenting cells via MHC II and are activated by IFN-γ.
- They engage in antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity.
- In granulomas (e.g., tuberculosis, sarcoidosis), RBCs can fuse to form giant cells.
Types of Macrophages
- Kupffer cells are located in the liver.
- Histiocytes are found in connective tissue.
- Osteoclasts are present in bone.
- Microglial cells reside in the brain.
Role in Sepsis
- Lipid A, a component of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Gram-negative bacteria, binds to CD14 receptors on macrophages.
- This binding triggers macrophages to release pro-inflammatory cytokines, crucial for infection response but can lead to severe inflammation.
- Overactivity may result in septic shock, characterized by a significant drop in blood pressure and multiple organ failure.
Granulocytes Overview
- Eosinophils: Defend against helminthic infections and prominently contain major basic protein (MBP).
- Neutrophils: Acute inflammatory response cells, known for their multilobed nucleus and phagocytic capabilities.
- Basophils: Mediate allergic reactions and contain densely basophilic granules rich in heparin and histamine.
Functions of Specific Granules
- Eosinophils possess granules packed with large, uniform-sized granules and enzymes like leukocyte alkaline phosphatase (LAP), collagenase, and lactoferrin.
- Neutrophils feature azurophilic granules crucial for combating pathogens.
- Basophils can synthesize and release leukotrienes as needed.
Dendritic Cells
- Function as highly phagocytic antigen-presenting cells (APCs).
- Serve as a link between innate and adaptive immune systems, stimulating T-cell responses.
- Express MHC class II and Fc receptors, capable of presenting exogenous antigens on MHC class I through cross-presentation.
Erythrocytes and Reticulocytes
- Poikilocytosis indicates the presence of varying shapes of red blood cells (RBCs).
- Reticulocytes are immature RBCs that serve as indicators of erythroid proliferation in the bone marrow.
- A bluish color, termed polychromasia, is observed in reticulocytes on Wright-Giemsa stain, indicating residual ribosomal RNA.
Monocytes
- Monocytes circulate in the blood and can differentiate into macrophages upon entering tissues.
- Lipid A binding to CD14 receptors on macrophages activates these cells, inducing the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
- This activation is essential for fighting infections but can lead to overactive responses, resulting in systemic inflammation and conditions like septic shock, characterized by a significant drop in blood pressure and multiple organ failure.
Megakaryocytes and Platelets
- Megakaryocytes are the source of platelets, which play a crucial role in primary hemostasis.
- Thrombopoietin stimulates the proliferation of megakaryocytes, enhancing platelet production.
- Thrombocytopenia, or decreased platelet function, results in symptoms like petechiae.
- Platelets are anucleate, small cytoplasmic fragments derived from megakaryocytes, crucial for blood clotting.
Plasma Cells
- Plasma cells feature a well-rounded Golgi apparatus, vital for processing and packaging antibodies before secretion.
- The prominence of the Golgi apparatus is often highlighted in cell diagrams to indicate its importance in antibody production.
Bone Marrow and Peripheral Blood
- Megakaryocytes and plasma cells are primarily located in the bone marrow and do not circulate in peripheral blood.
Left Shift in Blood
- A left shift refers to an increase in neutrophil precursors, such as band cells and metamyelocytes, in peripheral blood, indicating acute myeloid proliferation.
- It often reflects conditions like inflammation or Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML).
- Leukoerythroblastic reaction includes a left shift accompanied by immature RBCs, suggesting bone marrow infiltration due to conditions like myelofibrosis or metastasis.
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