Biochemistry: Carbohydrates and Glycosaminoglycans

Racemic Mixture

• A racemic mixture is a mixture of equal amounts of two enantiomers of a chiral molecule.

Asymmetric Carbon Atom

• An asymmetric carbon atom is a carbon atom that is attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms.

Oligosaccharides

• Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates that are composed of a small number of monosaccharide units (usually 2-10 units).

Medical Importance of Heparin and Chondroitin Sulfate

• Heparin is a glycosaminoglycan that is used as an anticoagulant.
• Chondroitin sulfate is a glycosaminoglycan that is found in cartilage.
• Both heparin and chondroitin sulfate play important roles in the body.

Biomedical Importance of Glucuronic Acid

• Glucuronic acid is a uronic acid that is involved in the detoxification of many drugs and other compounds.
• Glucuronic acid is also involved in the biosynthesis of glycosaminoglycans, which are important components of connective tissue.

Medical Significance of Fructose, Mannose, and Galactose

• Fructose, mannose, and galactose are all monosaccharides that are important sources of energy for the body.
• Fructose is found in fruits and honey.
• Mannose is found in some vegetables and fruits.
• Galactose is found in milk.

Medical Significance of Inositol

• Inositol is a cyclic hexitol (six-carbon sugar alcohol) that is involved in many important metabolic processes, including cell signaling, and lipid metabolism.
• Inositol is also a component of the phospholipid phosphatidylinositol, which is important for cell membrane structure and function.

Lactose is the Most Suitable Sugar for Babyfeeding

• Lactose is a disaccharide that is composed of glucose and galactose.
• Lactose is the primary sugar found in milk.
• Lactose is easily digested by infants and provides them with the energy and nutrients they need to grow and develop.

Biomedical Importance of Glucans and Fructans

• Glucans are polysaccharides that are composed of glucose units.
• Fructans are polysaccharides that are composed of fructose units.
• Both glucans and fructans are important for maintaining blood sugar levels, providing energy, and boosting the immune system.

Importance of Lipids

• Lipids are a group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water.
• Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
• Lipids are essential for cell structure, energy storage, and hormone production.

Function of VLDL

• Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) are lipoproteins that transport triglycerides from the liver to other tissues.

Function of HDL

• High-density lipoproteins (HDL) are lipoproteins that transport cholesterol from the tissues back to the liver, where it can be excreted. -HDL is often referred to as the "good cholesterol" because of its role in removing cholesterol from the body.

Function of Chylomicrons

• Chylomicrons are lipoproteins that transport dietary fats (triglycerides) from the small intestine to other tissues.

Function of LDL

• Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) are lipoproteins that transport cholesterol from the liver to other tissues.
• LDL is often referred to as the "bad cholesterol" because high levels of LDL can lead to the buildup of cholesterol in the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease.

Main Function of Lipoproteins

• Lipoproteins are important for transporting lipids throughout the body.
• Lipoproteins are composed of a core of lipids (triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids) that are surrounded by a shell of proteins.

Three Derived Lipids

• Derived lipids are lipids that are produced from other lipids.
• Examples of derived lipids include:
  • Cholesterol: a steroid that is important for cell membrane structure and function.
• Bile salts: used for emulsifying fats in the digestive system.
• Steroid hormones: including testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol.

Lipoproteins are Important Structures

• Lipoproteins are complex structures that play an essential role in lipid metabolism.

Deficiency of Essential Fatty Acids Have a Mass Effect

• Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that the body cannot synthesize and must be obtained from the diet.
• Deficiency of essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid (omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3), can have a number of negative effects on health, including skin problems, hair loss, and impaired immune function.

Acrolein Test

• Acrolein is a highly reactive aldehyde that is produced by the dehydration of glycerol.
• The acrolein test is a chemical test that is used to detect the presence of glycerol in a sample.

Acrolein Used for Detection of Free Glycerol

• Acrolein is generated by the dehydration of glycerol, and this reaction occurs when glycerol is exposed to high temperatures and a strong dehydrating agent.
• Acrolein is a volatile compound with a pungent odor, and it can be detected by its characteristic smell. The presence of acrolein is a strong indicator of glycerol’s presence in a sample.

Glycerol Has Great Biomedical Importance

• Glycerol is a vital component of lipids, most notably triglycerides and phospholipids.
• Glycerol serves as a backbone for triglycerides and acts as a key component of the cell membrane, which acts as a barrier, separating the cell from its external environment, allowing for the regulation of nutrients and waste.

Acrolein Has No Use With Sphingosine

• Acrolein plays no role in the detection or identification of sphingosine.
• Acrolein is associated with glycerol, not sphingosine. Sphingosine is a long-chain amino alcohol, a component of sphingolipids.

Define "Ziwitterion"

• A zwitterion is a molecule that bears both a positive and a negative charge, but it is overall electrically neutral.
• Amino acids often exist as zwitterions at neutral pH, as their amino group accepts a proton, forming a positively charged ammonium ion (NH3+) and their carboxyl group donates a proton, forming a negatively charged carboxylate ion (COO−).

Salting In

• Salting in is a process in which the solubility of a protein is increased by the addition of salt.
• At low salt concentrations, salt can increase protein solubility through electrostatic interactions between ions and the protein. It shields the protein from itself, reducing the formation of hydrophobic interactions that could lead to precipitation.

Salting Out

• Salting out is a process in which the solubility of a protein is decreased by the addition of salt.
• High concentrations of salt can disrupt the hydration shell around proteins, and compete with the protein for water molecules. This leads to a decrease in solubility and the precipitation of the protein.

Isoelectric pH

• The isoelectric pH (pI) is the pH at which a protein has a net charge of zero.
• At the isoelectric point, proteins are least soluble and most likely to precipitate.

Example of Derived Proteins

• Derived proteins are proteins that have been chemically modified or broken down.
• Examples of derived proteins include:
  • Albuminoids/Scleroproteins
  • Conjugated Proteins
  • Peptides
  • Amino Acids

Secondary Derived Protein

• Secondary derived proteins are proteins that have been chemically modified or broken down. Examples of secondary derived proteins include:
  • Metaproteins: formed by the partial hydrolysis of proteins.
  • Proteoses: formed by the further hydrolysis of proteins.
  • Peptones: formed by further hydrolysis of proteins.

The Main Milk Protein

• Casein is the main protein found in milk.

Four Scleroproteins and Their Functions

• Scleroproteins (also known as albuminoids) are fibrous proteins that are characterized by their insolubility in water and their high tensile strength.
• They play crucial roles in providing structural support in the body, forming connective tissues, and protecting organs.
• Some examples of scleroproteins include:
  • Collagen: Found in bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and skin. It provides strength and support.
  • Elastin: Found in blood vessels, ligaments, and skin. It allows tissues to stretch and recoil.
  • Keratin: Found in hair, nails, and skin. It protects and provides structural support.
  • Fibroin: Found in silk. It provides strength and flexibility.

Two Basic Proteins

• Globular proteins
• Fibrous proteins

Biomeical Importance of Glutathione

• Glutathione is a tripeptide composed of the amino acids glutamate, cysteine, and glycine.
• It is an antioxidant that protects cells from damage caused by reactive oxygen species.
• Glutathione is also important for detoxification, DNA synthesis, and immune function.

Glutathione is a Tripeptide

• Glutathione is a tripeptide, meaning it is composed of three amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
• It plays a vital role in maintaining the body's redox balance. As a tripeptide, it's unique structure allows it to act as a reducing agent, protecting the body from oxidative stress.

This quiz covers fundamental concepts in biochemistry, focusing on topics like racemic mixtures, asymmetric carbon atoms, oligosaccharides, and the medical significance of compounds such as heparin and glucuronic acid. Test your understanding of these essential biochemical components and their roles in human health.