Learning theories

• Between stimulus and response there is a space, from Viktor E. Frankl
• In that space lies the power to choose a response and growth and freedom

Behaviourist View of Personality

• Personality is determined by environmental factors (radical environmentalism).
• Personality is the sum of observable behavior, not cognitions, drives, instincts, motives, needs, or unconscious or conscious experiences.
• Personality must be assessed through observing behavior.
• Behaviorists believe that two learning processes determine behavior and personality

Classical Conditioning

• Learning occurs through repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that produces a reflexive response.
• Unconditioned stimulus (US) produces a reflexive response
• Unconditioned response (UR) is the reflexive response to the US
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to produce the reflexive response after being repeatedly paired with the US
• Conditioned response (CR) is the reflexive response occurs in reaction to the CS
• In Pavlov's experiments with dogs, food (US) caused salivation (UR)
• Ringing a bell (CS) was repeatedly paired with food, eventually leading dogs to salivate (CR) at the sound of the bell alone

Instrumental Conditioning

• Learning occurrs through reinforcement and punishment.
• Positive reinforcement involves introducing a desired stimulus after a behavior, increasing the likelihood of the behavior being repeated, like praise
• Negative reinforcement involves reducing or removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior, increasing the likelihood of the behavior being repeated; an example is the discontinuation of negative comments from a loved one after smoking cessation
• Positive punishment involves introducing an aversive stimulus after a behavior, decreasing the likelihood of the behavior being repeated, for instance, spanking
• Negative punishment involves reducing or removing a desired stimulus after a behavior, decreasing the likelihood of the behavior being repeated, like grounding

Skinner Box Experiment

• Skinner placed pigeons in a "Skinner box" with a lever and a chute for food delivery.
• Pigeons learned to press the lever for food, increasing the rate at which they pressed the lever until they did little else.
• This is an example of positive reinforcement, where food is the reinforcement

Contemporary Learning Theories

• Early learning theorists maintained personality is learned through classical and instrumental conditioning
• Contemporary learning theorists suggest this view is limited, discounting an individual's "internal state" (cognitions, drives, instincts, motives, needs, etc.).
• Contemporary learning theorists elaborate on conditioning processes and emphasize the individual’s internal state, and other social factors
• These theories are referred to as social cognitive theories

Dollard and Miller’s Social Cognitive Theory

• Dollard and Miller’s theory emphasizes five concepts: drive, cue, response, reinforcement, and habit hierarchy
• Drive is a motivational state that creates a readiness to respond and "propels" behavior
• Cue is a stimulus that elicits behavior when combined with a drive, indicating what action should be taken
• Response is behavior expressed because of a cue and aimed at eliminating a drive
• Reinforcement involves the positive consequences after a response, resulting in drive reduction
• Habit hierarchy refers to the range of possible responses to a cue in the presence of a drive, which vary in their probability of occurrence
• R1 is the "dominant response" and is most likely because it has been most successful in achieving drive reduction in the past and relates to behavior-outcome expectancy
• If R1 is unsuccessful in achieving drive reduction, the order of responses in the habit hierarchy changes
• Learning occurs when the order of responses in the habit hierarchy changes
• Unique habit hierarchies account for each individual personality

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

• Bandura’s theory emphasizes observational learning which is learning through the observation of others (models)
• Observational learning is a "perceptual process" involving attention, retention, production, and performance
• Observational learning is more efficient than learning through direct experience
• Most learning is accomplished this way and has evolved among humans because it enhances the probability of survival
• Observational learning does not always require reinforcement, but reinforcement does facilitate it
• Bandura distinguished between four types of reinforcement:
  • Extrinsic (social) Reinforcement: Arbitrary or socially determined, such as a grade
  • Intrinsic Reinforcement: The natural outcome of a behavior, like aspirin relieving a headache
  • Vicarious Reinforcement: Reinforcement given to a model, like a scholarship awarded to a classmate
  • Self-Reinforcement: Reinforcement one gives to oneself, such as self-approval